Who founded the Kazan Khanate. Historical background: Kazan Khanate
KHANATE OF KAZAN
Relations between the Kazan Khanate and the Grand Duchy of Moscow (1437-1556)
1. Circumstances that led to the formation of the Kazan Khanate (1406 - 1436)
1. Time of creation of the Khanate:
The Kazan Khanate was formed from part of the Volga region lands of the Golden Horde in the second half of the 30s of the 15th century.
2. The size of the Khanate, its territory, borders:
The Khanate covered the territory of the present Tatar, Mari, Chuvash, Udmurt republics, as well as the Ulyanovsk, Penza, Saratov, Tambov regions adjacent to the Volga from the west and east, part of the Kirov (Vyatka) and southern part of the Perm regions.
In the south of the earth The Kazan Khanate reached present-day Volgograd (on the right bank of the Volga).
In the north the border of the khanate ran along the river. Pizhma (from its mouth to the mouth of the Voya river), then along the river. Vyatka, including the entire river basin. Kelmezi and most of the river basin. Cheptsy, as well as the upper reaches of the river. Kama, not reaching the town of Kaya a little.
In the east The Kazan Khanate bordered on the Nogai state in such a way that the latter included almost all of Bashkiria, excluding only the Menzelinsky region, which was included in the Kazan Khanate.
Extreme western The point of the Kazan Khanate was the city of Vasilsursk, and the border with Russia (i.e. North-Eastern Russia) ran here along the western bank of the river. Sura and Volga.
3. Population:
The population of the Kazan Khanate, therefore, consisted not only of the Tatars, but also of the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mari, Mordovians, Udmurts), as well as the Chuvash and the descendants of the ancient Bulgar population, which had long occupied the territory between the Volga and Kama rivers even before its conquest in the 13th century. Tatar-Mongols.
4. Reasons for the creation of the Khanate:
The creation of the Kazan Khanate in the territory outlined above was the result of those processes of weakening and disintegration of the Golden Horde that followed at the end of the 14th century. after strong military and foreign policy pressure on the Horde state, first from its western neighbor - the Moscow State (1380 - Battle of Kulikovo), and then in 1389 - 1395. and the eastern - the power of Tamerlane, who completely defeated the Golden Horde and ruined its capital Sarai-Berke.
The military defeat was aggravated by the development at the turn of the 14th century. and XV century deep internal contradictions in the Golden Horde, expressed in a fierce struggle for power between Tokhtamysh, on the one hand, and the Khan of the Trans-Volga Horde, Timur-Kutlu, supported by the Siberian Khan Shadibek, on the other.
After the death of Tokhtamysh (1406), the struggle between the heirs of these two dynastic branches intensified sharply.
At first, the sons of Tokhtamysh ascended the throne of the Golden Horde, but they all ruled for a very short time. The most notable of them was Jelal-eddin, who ruled from 1411, when he carried out a coup, overthrowing his rival, the son of Khan Timur-Kutla, with the help of the Lithuanian prince Vytautas.
Jelal-eddin managed to restore the dominance of the Tatars over Russia and force Vasily II Dmitrievich to again pay tribute to the Golden Horde from 1412. Jelal-eddin's son, Ulu-Muhammad, who ascended the throne in 1428, also supported the Horde's sovereignty over Russia. So, in 1431, two contenders for the Russian throne in Moscow came to him in Sarai-Berk - Vasily II and his son, the future Vasily III, grandson of Dmitry Donskoy. Khan Ulu-Muhammad confirmed his grandson as the Grand Duke of Moscow.
However, in 1436, Ulu-Muhammad himself lost the throne in Sarai, where Giyas-eddin reigned, and then in 1437, Kichi-Mukhammed, the grandson of Tokhtamysh’s rival, Khan Timur-Kutlu, was elevated to khan. Thus, the throne of the Golden Horde was from then on finally closed to the descendants of Tokhtamysh.
However, Ulu-Muhammad managed to negotiate with the new khan of the Golden Horde to allocate him a peripheral western ulus - the Crimean lands, where he retired, thereby becoming the founder of the new Crimean Khanate.
True, his stay in this new capacity in Crimea was extremely short-lived, since he immediately did not get along with the local feudal elite - the Crimean Murzas of pro-Turkish orientation, and therefore was expelled by them from Crimea in 1437.
Leaving there, however, not empty-handed, but at the head of a 3,000-strong army, Ulu-Muhammad invaded the borders of the Russian state, occupying the city of Belev in Zaokskaya Muscovy, trying to settle with his people in the sparsely populated lands between the Moscow and Crimean possessions proper. The army sent by the Grand Duke of Moscow, which was tasked with expelling Ulu-Muhammad from the boundaries of the Moscow state, Khan December 5, 1437 completely smashed it in the so-called Battle of Belyov and thereby demonstrated both his military strength and outstanding military leadership.
Moving further east along the Zaoksky outskirts of the Moscow lands, Ulu-Mukhammed, passing the upper reaches of the river. Don, Voronezh, Tsna, Khopra, went to the Sura and then to the Volga in the area south of Kazan, deciding to tear away those possessions of the Golden Horde located along the Middle Volga, in Zasurye, which bordered on the Moscow Principality.
5. Capital of the Khanate:
Ulu-Muhammad made the city of Kazan, which arose in the middle of the 13th century, his capital. (c. 1261) and a hundred years later it became a significant trading center of the Volga region, although the city was subjected to frequent devastation during this time, including by Russian troops (1399).
Ulu-Muhammad, however, founded his capital not on the old site (the so-called Old Kazan, Iski-Kazan), located on the Siberian road, 50 km northeast of present-day Kazan, on the meadow side of the Volga, but moved it on the Kazanka River, 5 km from its mouth, which flows into the Volga. Thus, the city found itself in the corner between the Volga and Kazanka riverbeds, protected by them. Fortified by high wooden walls, Kazan began to quickly grow and prosper, becoming a city in the second half of the 15th century. to the center of intermediary trade between Russia and the East and becoming the venue for the annual famous Volga Fair.
So, in 1437-1438 arose spun off from the Golden Horde new Tatar Khanate, called Kazansky. From then on, the Lower Volga part of the former Golden Horde began to be called in fact the Sarai Horde or the Sarai Khanate and increasingly lost its political significance until it disappeared completely, dissolving into another new Tatar state - the Astrakhan Khanate (1480), which also arose from the ruins of the Golden Horde, but south of present-day Volgograd, along the Lower Volga and along its delta.
2. Formation of relations between the Moscow Grand Duchy and the Kazan Khanate during the period of strengthening the power of the latter (1438-1487)
Having settled firmly in Kazan, Ulu-Muhammad decided as his first duty to restore Tatar rule over Russia and force the Grand Dukes of Moscow, as before, to pay tribute, but not to the Golden Horde, but to him, the Khan of Kazan.
To this end, he undertook a military campaign against the Russian state.
THE FIRST CAMPAIGN OF THE KAZAN TATARS TO MOSCOW IN THE 15th century.
Trip start date: spring (April) 1439
1. At the beginning April 1439 Ulu-Muhammad's troops approached Nizhny Novgorod and occupied it almost without resistance.
2. Within May 1439 The Tatars reached Moscow, ravaging Russian villages along the way, robbing the population, stealing livestock.
3. The vanguard of the Tatar army entered Moscow in Zamoskvorechye June 2, 1439 and June 3 crossed the Moscow River in the Zaryadye area.
Having surrounded the Kremlin, the Tatars tried to take it by storm for two weeks, looking for different approaches. However, this did not produce any results.
4. Burning Posads, having ravaged Zaryadye and the adjacent part of the White City, the Tatar army June 13, 1439 left Moscow.
5. This campaign did not complete any peace agreements. Just over the next five years, i.e. from the summer of 1439 to the autumn of 1444, a virtually peaceful status quo was maintained. Khan was saving up his strength for a new campaign against Moscow.
THE SECOND CAMPAIGN OF THE KAZAN TATARS AGAINST MOSCOW IN THE 15th century.
Trip start date: autumn (September) 1444
Progress of hostilities:
1. Starting the hike at the end September 1444, the Kazan army occupied Nizhny Novgorod by mid-October and, having then occupied a vast adjacent area, remained to winter on Russian territory, waiting for the establishment of a strong sleigh route to Moscow.
2. In January 1445 Along the winter route, the advanced detachment of Kazan residents set out for Moscow and first headed towards Murom, but, having met fierce resistance from the Moscow militia, Khan Ulu-Mukhammed was forced to retreat, and then, due to intensifying frosts, he also left Nizhny Novgorod, returning with an army homesick for home to Kazan.
3. However from spring 1445 the campaign was resumed. In April, Nizhny Novgorod was captured again, and within May - June The Kazan army under the command of princes Mahmud and Yakub fought their way to Vladimir.
4. At the walls of the Spaso-Efimevsky Monastery near Suzdal took place on the banks of the Nerl River 7 June 1445 general battle of the Kazan army under the leadership of Mahmud, the son of the khan. The Russian troops were completely defeated, and Grand Duke Vasily III himself and his cousin Prince Mikhail Vereisky were captured. They were both taken to the Headquarters of Ulu-Muhammad in Nizhny Novgorod, where they agreed to all the peace terms dictated to them by the Tatars. The latter were so difficult and humiliating that they were not even published, but gave rise to extreme panic in the Moscow state and various rumors that Vasily III had completely given Moscow to the Tatars.
PEACE AGREEMENT BASILI III - ULU-MUHAMMED
Russian-Kazan Peace Treaty of 1445
Place of agreement: Nizhny Novgorod, Headquarters of Ulu-Muhammad.
Contracting parties:
From Russia: Vasily III, Grand Duke of the Moscow Principality
From the Kazan Khanate: Khan Ulu-Muhammad.
Terms of agreement:
1. Ransom from captivity of the Grand Duke and his cousin (although the size of the ransom sum was not reported, however, three versions are known):
A. Everything that the Grand Duke can pay (the entire treasury!).
B. “From gold and silver and from all kinds of spoils and from horses and armor - half 30 thousand from everything.”
B. 200,000 rubles in silver.
2. Ordinary prisoners did not return. All of them were sold as slaves into slavery in the eastern Muslim markets.
3. Kazan officials were appointed to Russian cities to collect taxes and monitor the receipt of indemnities.
4. To ensure and fully guarantee the payment of the indemnity, the Kazan Khanate received income from a number of Russian cities in the form of feedings. The list of cities was subject to clarification.
Note:
Even more alarming rumors spread among the people: as if Vasily III had given the Moscow principality to the Tatars in general, and left only Tver for himself.
The people refused to recognize such terms of the peace treaty. The boyars prepared to deprive Vasily III of the throne upon his return from captivity. In this regard, Vasily III, transported to Kurmysh, was kept there until October 1 and was released and sent to Moscow, accompanied by a Tatar military detachment (retinue!) of 500 people. (the size of a modern infantry battalion!) to protect it and control its actions. Kazan administrators were appointed to all cities of Russia.
5. A special condition of the peace treaty was the allocation by the Russian Grand Duke of a special inheritance in the Trans-Oka Meshchera land, which was supposed to serve as a buffer state between the Kazan Khanate and the Moscow Grand Duchy and which was taken into possession by the son of Ulu-Muhammad Kasim, who formally became a “Russian appanage prince ", the owner of a special inheritance on Russian soil.
Note:
Tribute to the Kasimov princes (khanam) is recorded in the following documents:
B. Agreement between the sons of Ivan III Vasily and Yuri dated June 16, 1504 and the will of Ivan III, drawn up in 1594.(Collected State Charters and Agreements, part I, document 144, pp. 389-400, M., 1813).
Moreover, this tribute was preserved even under Ivan IV the Terrible almost after the conquest of Kazan! (The last mention of her refers to March 12, 1553!)
6. One of the points of the humiliating agreement concluded by Vasily III was permission for the Tatars to build their mosques in Russian cities. This point, as soon as it began to be put into practice, aroused fanatical resistance of the Russian population, supported by the clergy.
The reaction of the Russian people to the peace treaty of 1445
The implementation of the treaty of August 25, 1445 caused nationwide indignation and riots in individual cities against the government of Vasily III. As a result, three and a half months after his return to Russia and the introduction of a new regime, Vasily III was deposed And blinded, which was seen as a guarantee that he will never be able to return to government activity.
However, the khan sent his army to support Vasily III, led by the princes Kasim and Yakub, who restored the Grand Duke to the throne (from now on he received the nickname Vasily the Dark both for bringing the Tatars to Russian soil and because he became blind) and thereby ensuring the full implementation of the agreement concluded with him.
As a result, the degree of Moscow’s subordination to the Kazan Khanate turned out to be much greater than the previous subordination of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' to the Golden Horde! (And this is more than half a century after the Battle of Kulikovo!?) These are the zigzags Russian history was capable of!
CAMPAIGN OF VASILI III AGAINST KAZAN IN 1461
In the fall of 1461, Vasily III undertook a campaign against Kazan, but, before reaching Kazan, he stopped it immediately after Murom, because The ambassadors of the Kazan Khan, sent to meet them, persuaded Vasily III to end the matter peacefully, without a fight.
RUSSIAN-KAZAN WORLD 1461
Peace treaty between Vasily the Dark and the Kazan Khanate in 1461
Contract signing date: autumn 1461
Place of signing the contract - Vladimir.
Agreement conditions: maintaining the status quo, i.e. continuation of Moscow's payment of tribute to the Kazan Khanate.
Note:
The reign of Vasily the Dark was marked by the most brutal feudal internal strife. These are the questions that Russian historians studied when they studied the period 1425-1462.
Very little information has been preserved about the foreign policy of Vasily the Dark. None of the historians who studied this period - N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, D.I. Yazykov, E.A. Belov and others - do not even mention approximately the time of year when the Russian-Kazan peace of 1461 was concluded. Perhaps the agreement was only oral!
Kazan Khan Ulu-Mukhammed died in 1446. His eldest son, Mahmud, who died in 1463, ascended the throne. He was succeeded by his son Khalil, who died childless in 1467, after whom his brother Ibrahim became khan. All this twenty years, during which the Kazan Khanate was ruled by the khans of the Ulu-Muhammad dynasty, peaceful relations were maintained and maintained between Kazan and Russia.
During this time, Kazan became a recognized center of international trade at the junction of Eastern and European (Russian) markets.
Significant changes also occurred in Russia: the country recovered from heavy indemnity and in the 40s and 50s even experienced an increase in productive forces as a result of the transition to three-field crop rotation, which revolutionized agriculture, i.e. mainly in the sector of the then state economy. In 1462, instead of Vasily III the Dark, who was devoid of any authority, a new Grand Duke stood at the head of Russia - a strong-willed statesman, a brilliant administrator, a talented diplomat, Ivan III, in fact the first Russian Tsar. Deciding to pursue a purposeful policy of strengthening and expanding Rus', Ivan III entered into close relations with the leading states of Western Europe - with the Papal Throne, with the Austrian Empire (the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation), with the Venetian Republic, and the Kingdom of England.
Ivan III set the main foreign policy goal of liberating Russia from Tatar dependence and began already in the mid-60s of the 15th century. pursue a literally aggressive policy towards the Kazan Khanate. The appearance on the Kazan throne of Khan Ibrahim, who had neither military nor state talents behind him, like his all-powerful father - Khan Mahmud, whose very name made neighboring peoples tremble, gave reason for Ivan III to intervene in the internal affairs of the Kazan Khanate and provide support to his the army nominated, in opposition to Ibrahim, another candidate for the Kazan throne - Tsarevich Kasim, who lived for 20 years as the head of the “Russian” Kasimov Khanate and was considered by Moscow as “its own man,” whose stay as the Kazan Khan should have eased the bonds of Tatar dependence for Russia.
RUSSIAN-TATAR WAR 1467-1469
Dthe start of the war: end of August 1467
Progress of the war:
1. The war began at the end of August after the harvest and was fought on the Russian side sluggishly and uncertainly. The Russian army, sent for offensive purposes to the Kazan Khanate for the first time in 20 years, was extremely afraid of a clash with the Tatars. Therefore, at the very first meeting with the leading Kazan army, the Russians not only did not dare to start a battle, but did not even make an attempt to cross the Volga to the other bank, where the Tatar army was stationed, and therefore simply turned back; So, even before it began, the “campaign” ended in shame and failure.
2. Due to the obvious weakness of the enemy, as well as because of the beginning of the rains, Khan Ibrahim did not pursue the Russians, did not even go to Nizhny Novgorod and calmly returned to Kazan, but in the winter along the sleigh route he could not deny himself the pleasure of making a punitive attack on the nearby from the Kazan borders in the Kostroma land, the Russian city of Galich Mersky and plundered its surroundings, although he could not take the fortified fort itself.
3. However, the Russian government was not afraid this time. Ivan III ordered strong garrisons to be sent to all border cities: Nizhny, Murom, Kostroma, Galich and to carry out a retaliatory punitive attack. The Tatar troops were expelled from the Kostroma borders by the governor Prince Iv. You. Striga-Obolensky, and the attack on the lands of the Mari from the north and west was carried out by detachments under the command of Prince Daniil Kholmsky, which even reached Kazan itself. At the same time, Russian raids were deliberately accompanied by extremely brutal cruelties against the civilian population, from whom they burned and destroyed everything that they could not take away and steal as booty. The provocative nature of these attacks was quite obvious: they wanted to provoke the Tatars at all costs to start a big war with Russia.
4. Indeed, the actions of Russian punitive detachments forced the Kazan Khan to send a response army in two directions:
in the north(Galich), where the Tatars reached the river. South and took the town of Kichmengsky and occupied two Kostroma volosts, and
on the south- Nizhny Novgorod-Murom, where the Tatars were met by significant Russian forces, which, firstly, did not allow the Kazan people to reach Murom, stopping them, and secondly, went from defense to offensive near Nizhny Novgorod and captured the leader of the Kazan detachment, Murza Khoja -Berdy, having defeated his army.
5. Moreover, after a short time the Russians opened a new front - Khlynovsky.
Here is a detachment of rooks, having gone down the river. Vyatka on the Kama, deep in the rear of the Kazan Khanate, began to commit daring robberies of merchant ships, ruining local villages and towns. True, these partisan actions were soon completely stopped by the Tatars: they sent strong detachments to the north, which not only drove out the ushkuiniks, but also took the capital of the Vyatka region - the city of Khlynov, establishing a Tatar administration here for the coming years, and then actually annexing this region to Kazan Khanate.
6. However, temporary setbacks did not stop the aggressive direction of the Moscow government’s actions.
7. In the spring of 1469, large and specially designed military operations were undertaken in advance, the purpose of which was to ensure that the war not only did not subside, but also became serious, protracted and irreversible. A plan was developed to capture Kazan “in pincers” by attacking it with two detachments - from the north and from the south. those. from the rear, and both detachments were supposed to arrive by water - along the Volga. For this purpose, two troops were formed:
1) Nizhny Novgorod, the departure and formation of which was not hidden and which was supposed to go down the Volga to Kazan.
2) Ustyugskoe, which was secretly formed thousands of kilometers from the theater of military operations, in Veliky Ustyug, and was supposed to go around a two-thousand-kilometer distance along the Sukhona, Vychegda, Northern and Southern Keltma rivers to the upper reaches of the Kama, and then descend along the Kama to its mouth in the deep to the rear of the Tatars and row up the Volga to Kazan from the south just at the moment when the northern Nizhny Novgorod army should arrive at Kazan from the north.
An attack from two sides with complete surprise should, according to the developers of this grandiose plan (and its author was Tsar Ivan III himself), lead to the rapid and inevitable fall of the khan's capital.
However, such plans were clearly ahead of their time. For their implementation there were still no elementary technical conditions, and above all the possibility of calculating movement time, mutual information, the availability of weather forecasts, without which there could be no talk of any coordination of actions. As a result, nothing came of the “brilliant plan.”
7. Russian troops arrived to Kazan at different times and were easily broken each individually.
First, Nizhny Novgorod detachment under the command of I.D. Runa approached Kazan 21 May 1469 Having burned down the Kazan towns and started a big fire around the Kremlin, the Russians immediately retreated to Korovnichy Island, and from there, under pressure from the Tatars sent in pursuit of them, they were forced to retreat completely back to Nizhny Novgorod.
Second, Ustyug detachment under the command of two princes of Yaroslavl, he was discovered by the Tatars long before his approach to Kazan, and a “good meeting” was arranged for him: the Tatars did not even allow the Ustyugans to land on the shore, but defeated them right on the Volga with their fleet, and captured more than half of the attackers, including including their leaders Prince Daniil Vasilyevich and Mikita Konstantinovich Yaroslavsky and the son of the boyar Timofey Mikhailovich Yurl Pleshcheev. Only a handful of Russian “sailors”, led by Prince Vasily Ukhtomsky, escaped death. In the same way, the campaign of the troops of Prince Konstantin Bezzubtsev in the same 1469 remained unsuccessful.
8. Thus, for all four campaigns, the Russian side, except for the devastation of enemy territory during the raids, did not achieve any real results, and in addition, it lost the territory of the Vyatka region and its administrative center, the city of Khlynov, to Kazan.
9. However, all this did not discourage Ivan III, who stubbornly decided to fight the Kazan Khanate at any cost. Despite the aggravation of relations with the Novgorod Republic at this time, Ivan III again gathered the remnants of the Nizhny Novgorod and Ustyug detachments, armed, equipped, sparing no expense, its personnel, who, in addition, despite the defeat, were awarded, and then, replenishing it recruits, again ordered a decisive attack on Kazan, carrying out a frontal, demonstrative attack on the city. New authoritative military leaders were appointed at the head of the army: Ivan III’s brothers Andrei and Yuri.
10. The offensive began, as always, after the harvest, at the end of August - beginning of September 1469. September 1 The assault on Kazan by the Russian army began. Puzzled by the stubbornness of the Moscow monarch, who stubbornly, despite defeats, again and again made seemingly aimless attacks on the Tatar capital, Khan Ibrahim proposed starting peace negotiations to find out what explains the irreconcilable position of the Russian side. Unexpectedly, Ivan III, who at that time had a major conflict brewing with Lithuania and Novgorod the Great, easily came to an agreement with the khan: the war was immediately stopped on terms that were not recorded in writing.
PEACE AGREEMENT IVAN III - KHAN IBRAHIM
Place of agreement: Kazan
Terms of agreement:
1. Khan returned Russian captives (polonyanniks captured in Russian-Tatar conflicts and during raids over the last decade).
2. The Russian side, satisfied with this condition, refused to raid and otherwise violate the borders of the Kazan Khanate.
Peaceful relations, stipulated by the treaty of 1469, remained throughout eight next years.
In February 1478 Ivan III unilaterally violated the peace agreement with Khan Ibrahim, starting military operations near the city of Khlynov with the goal of returning the Vyatka region (region) to Russia.
THE FIRST MILITARY CAMPAIGN OF IVAN III'S ARMY TO KAZAN IN 1478
Reason for war:
1. In the period from 1471-1478. Ivan III defeated the Novgorod Republic and annexed it to the Moscow State, including all Novgorod colonies. Since Vyatka was also a Novgorod colony before its capture by the Tatars, it, as the “old Russian land,” should, in the opinion of Ivan III, return to Russia.
2. The “Vyatka Question” was, of course, a convenient reason to start a war against the Kazan Khanate again and test what its true strength was.
The strength of Ivan III himself increased significantly by 1478. He had a victorious and newly mobilized huge army of 150 thousand, which no longer felt any fear of any enemy, having successfully repelled and defeated both the Novgorodians and the Lithuanians who tried to help them.
Progress of the war:
1. Ivan III, not satisfied with the actions in the Khlynov area, sent a detachment directly to Kazan with the aim of capturing it. However, nothing came of this. For some reason, the detachment quickly returned back under the pretext of bad weather (as if a strong storm had prevented the capture of Kazan). No reliable facts about the reasons for the defeat or retreat of Russian troops have been preserved in the sources.
2. In fact, it is known that peace was resumed on the previous terms of the agreement between Ivan III and Ibrahim Khan, i.e. status quo restored.
Khan Ibrahim died in 1479. The problem of succession to the throne arose again in Kazan. Ibrahim had sons from two wives - Fatima and Nur-Sultan. One group in the Tatar feudal elite, close to the Nogai Horde and gravitating toward trade with Central Asia, nominated Prince Ali, the son of Fatima, to the khan’s throne. Another group, which occupied pro-Russian positions, nominated the son of Nur-Sultan, Tsarevich Mohammed-Emin.
Ali became Khan. Muhammad-Emin, who was 10 years old at the time, was sent by his supporters into emigration to Russia, and not to Crimea, where his mother lived in Bakhchisarai, who became the wife of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. Ivan III accepted Muhammad-Emin and gave him the city of Kashira to feed and manage as his personal inheritance.
Meanwhile, the main concern of Ivan III at this time was not at all supporting “his” contender for the throne in Kazan, but preparing a war against this Khanate without any reason, just to inflict damage on it and weaken it both militarily and politically. Ivan III pursued this policy consistently and almost fanatically, regardless of any facts or circumstances that interfered with this.
The tsar planned to start a war in 1482 and for this purpose acquired heavy fortress artillery, hired foreign officers and fortifiers, specialists in engineering (sapper) and explosive devices.
The gathering of troops had already been scheduled in Vladimir. Ivan III himself decided to act this time as the commander-in-chief of this aggressive army, but... Khan Ali, having learned about all these preparations through spies, began to actively counteract the outbreak of war, involving all his possible allies and opponents of Ivan III in the corresponding diplomatic counteractions: Crimean Khanate, Lithuania, Nogai Horde, etc.
As a result, the war was postponed by Ivan III. The tsar chose a different tactic - bribing Tatar murzas in court circles, interfering in the internal affairs of the Khanate for any reason, and also sent in 1484, as an “argument” in support of his supporters at the court in Kazan, an entire Russian army that stood silently on the banks of the Volga in full view of all residents, while disputes were going on in the palace between supporters and opponents of the Moscow orientation.
By these methods, Khan Ali was finally deposed in 1484, and the 16-year-old “Moscow Tatar” Muhammad-Emin ascended the throne.
However, his supporters were never able to create an authoritative and efficient government, which is why Moscow decided to return Khan Ali to the throne the very next year, in 1485.
Russian troops approached Kazan again, taking Muhammad-Emin and restoring... his recent competitor.
Thus, the Kazan Khanate, from the point of view of its loss of state authority among its own subjects, was quite ripe to yield to an external attack.
SECOND MILITARY CAMPAIGN OF IVAN III'S ARMY TO KAZAN IN 1487
Progress of the war:
1. Leaving Vladimir in mid-April, the Russian army May 18, 1487 approached Kazan and began to besiege the city. The Tatars tried to resist and lift the siege through frequent forays from the city and attacks from the rear on the Russian army of Tatar cavalry under the command of Ali-Gaza. But the Russians managed to destroy the Tatar cavalry and then surround the capital with a continuous ring.
2. The besieged in Kazan were not united. Their will to resist was weakened by supporters of the Russians, who eventually overthrew Khan Ali, opened July 9, 1487 gates of Kazan and handed over the khan and his entire family to Russian military leaders. Russian troops entered Kazan and began to plunder it.
Results of the war:
1. The leaders of the Nogai, anti-Russian “party” were executed.
2. Khan Ali and his wives were sent into exile to Vologda. His mother, Queen Fatima, sisters and brothers Melik-Tagir and Khudai-Kul were exiled to an even greater wilderness in Belozerye, to a tiny town (actually a village, settlement, 4 km from Belozersk) by Kargol.
3. Muhammad-Emin, surrounded by Russian advisers, was again elevated to the throne of the Khan of Kazan.
4. Moscow’s tributary relations with the Kazan Khanate were terminated in mid-1487.
5. The Kazan government officially recognized the equality of the parties: the Moscow State and the Kazan Khanate. In correspondence, the tsar and khan began to call themselves and each other brothers.
6. Ivan III took the title of Prince of Bulgaria (later in the title of the Russian tsars - Sovereign of Bulgaria), referring to the ancient territory of Volga-Kama Bulgaria, which was later occupied by the Kazan Khanate. This created a legal precedent that substantiated the supposedly “ancient right” of Moscow to the territory of the Kazan Khanate, which Ivan IV the Terrible later took advantage of, arguing his claims to the Kazan throne.
Reaction to the victory of the Moscow state over Kazan from other Tatar states
The Muslim states - neighbors of the Kazan Khanate - the Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate were shocked by the massacre committed by the Moscow Tsar in the independent Kazan Khanate. They made diplomatic representations to Moscow and demanded the release of Khan Ali and his family and their transfer, at least for a ransom, to Muslim countries.
However, Ivan III rejected such proposals: the khan’s family remained forever in Russian captivity and all its members died in prison and exile. Only the youngest Tsarevich Khudai-Kul, as a child, was baptized and lived under the name Peter Ibrahimovich from 1505 in Moscow, where he died in 1523.
Fearing a repetition of such actions by Moscow, and most importantly, trying to prevent them from becoming a precedent in Moscow’s relations with Muslim states, the Nogai and Siberian governments condemned the actions of Ivan III as a flagrant violation of the foundations of international law and signed treaties, and also added purely economic ones to their protests. requirements for the Moscow state: to provide the right of free passage through Muscovy to Nogai and Siberian merchants, as well as the right to duty-free trade in Russia itself.
3. Russian-Kazan relations during the period of the protectorate of the Moscow State over the Kazan Khanate (1487-1521)
During the period of Russia's de facto protectorate over the Kazan Khanate, the heads of both states regulated their relations with agreements concerning three issues:
1. Foreign policy (Kazan’s obligation not to fight against Russia).
2. Internal political (obligations of Kazan not to elect khans without the consent of Russia).
3. The interests of Russian subjects living in the Khanate (obligations of the Kazan government to ensure the safety and inviolability of the property of Russian merchants, to ensure the rights of their trade, to compensate them for losses caused by the Khan’s subjects).
Note:
As we see, the Kazan Khanate received only responsibilities, and the Moscow state received only rights in bilateral, formally “equal” relations.
The main foreign policy task of Russia during this period:
1. Take control of the market of the entire Volga region, consolidate your economic influence in the region, and achieve legally recorded significant economic benefits there.
2. During this period, Moscow did not put forward any political or territorial demands in relation to the Khan’s government, or put them in any form.
The main tactics of Russia to strengthen its positions in Kazan:
1. Russian influence in Kazan was exercised through a certain court clique, the so-called. "Russian party", which included influential Tatar Murzas and princes, who were the actual conductors of Russian influence and Russian politics.
2. Naturally, the “Russian party” was opposed by another court clique of the Tatar aristocracy, conventionally called "eastern party", which focused on the Tatar states, neighbors of Kazan, i.e. to the Siberian and Crimean khanates.
The struggle of these two “parties” at the Khan’s court created tension, which was stimulated and supported all the time by the Moscow state, looking for a reason to interfere in the internal affairs of the Kazan Khanate.
RUSSIAN MILITARY EXPEDITION TO KAZAN 1495
Reason and reason for the expedition:
Khan Muhammad-Emin, a protege of Russia, having learned that the “eastern party” was preparing to overthrow him and for this purpose called the army of the Siberian prince Mamuk, informed Tsar Ivan III about this.
The Tsar ordered the governors of Nizhny Novgorod to send a border detachment to Kazan. The leaders of the “Eastern Party”, having heard about this, fled from Kazan and notified Mamuk to stop the movement of his troops towards Kazan.
Expedition results:
1. A Russian military detachment, having entered Kazan and not finding the enemy, returned to Nizhny Novgorod two weeks later.
Then Mamuk's troops approached Kazan and took it without resistance.
Khan Muhammad-Emin managed to escape to Moscow with his family. Khan Mamuk from the Sheybani dynasty, a relative of the Siberian Khan Ibak, was placed on the throne.
1496 However, the leader of the “eastern party”, Prince Kel-Ahmed, and the new khan did not see eye to eye on governing the country, and Kel-Ahmed decided to restore the alliance with Russia. He carried out a counter-coup, expelled Mamuk and addressed Ivan III with an official message expressing regret about the coup of 1495, and his consent to the restoration of the former khan dynasty, but not Muhammad-Emin, but his brother Abdul-Latif, who lived in Russia.
In 1496, Kazan-Russian relations were restored on these terms.
1499 Reflection of the second attempt to establish the Siberian dynasty on the Kazan throne.
The pro-Siberian-minded Kazan prince Urak tried to carry out a coup in favor of the Siberian prince Agalak (brother of Khan Mamuk), but the government of Kel-Ahmed, with military support from Russia, repelled the attack of detachments of Siberian Tatars.
Abdul-Latif established himself on the Kazan throne.
1501 Prince Kel-Ahmed, the head of the Kazan government, traveled to Moscow to complain about the attempts of Khan Abdul-Latif to pursue a policy hostile to Moscow.
1502 The Russian embassy headed by Prince Zvenigorod, accompanied by a significant military detachment, arrived in Kazan and deposed Khan Abdul-Latif. He was sent into exile in Russia, in the city of Beloozero.
The coup took place calmly and was formalized legally Kazan-Moscow Union Treaty, signed:
from Russia- Prince Ivan Ivanovich Zvenigorodsky-Zvenets, boyar and governor, and Duma clerk Ivan Teleshov, and
from the Kazan Khanate- Prince Kel-Ahmed.
Muhammad-Emin was elevated to the Kazan throne.
KAZAN-RUSSIAN WAR 1505-1507
End date of the war: March 1507
Causes of the war: The 15-year Russian dominance, the displacement of the khans and their sending into exile in Russia greatly infringed on Tatar national feelings, caused protest both among the Tatar court aristocracy and among the common people, who understood that the Russians, “strangers” and infidels, were simply pushing around the Tatar national administration.
Having returned to the throne for the second time after his Moscow exile, Muhammad-Emin decided to put an end to Russian dominance and for three years (1502-1505) secretly prepared for war with Russia. He took into account all the factors that facilitated a change in orientation: the old age of Ivan III, the lack of vigilance among the Russians due to their constant success in putting pressure on Kazan, and the weakening of the “pro-Russian party” at court (the elimination of Kel-Ahmed).
Goals of the war:
1. Political: Liberate the Kazan Khanate from the Russian protectorate, break the allied (enslaving) treaties.
2. Economic: Acquire Russian slaves (captives) as a result of the war, the prices of which, during the almost 10-year cessation of their supply, have increased greatly in Asian slave markets.
Progress of the war:
1. The war began suddenly, on the opening day of the annual Volga Fair in Kazan, with a pogrom of Russian merchants. Most of them were killed, and their goods (shops, warehouses) were looted. All Russian subjects on the territory of the Kazan Khanate, including the Russian ambassador - M.A. Klyapik-Eropkina (Yaropkina), were arrested and became “polonyanniks” (several tens of thousands of people).
2. At the same time, a Tatar army of 60 thousand people set out from Kazan. (40 thousand - Kazan residents, 20 thousand - Nogais, invited in advance to Kazan, led by the Nogai brother Khansha), which approached Nizhny Novgorod, besieged the Kremlin, burned the settlements (in September 1505), but could not take . When the Nogai prince, the leader of the army, was killed by rifle fire from the Kremlin, the Tatars lifted the siege and returned to Kazan. The skillful defense of Nizhny Novgorod was led by Voivode Iv. You. Khabar-Simsky.
3. The Russian government mobilized a 100,000-strong army, sending it to Murom to cross the Kazan-Russian border. But panic occurred among the troops due to the spread of rumors about the atrocities and strength of the Tatars during the pogrom of the fair. As a result, the troops refused to cross the Kazan border and stopped in the vicinity of Murom. Therefore, the Tatars calmly plundered Russian lands along the Oka, without going far into Russian territory and stealing cattle from the border areas and taking people (civilians) captive.
The death of Ivan III temporarily interrupted Russian military activity in 1505.
4. In the spring of 1506, the new Grand Duke Vasily IV formed a new Russian army to march on Kazan. Formally, it was headed by the brother of the Grand Duke, Dmitry Ioannovich Zhilka, Prince Uglitsky, but in fact it was led by princes I.F. Velsky and A.V. Rostovsky.
5. On May 22, 1506, Russian infantry landed from boats near Kazan and, without any reconnaissance, headed from the bank of the Volga to the city. It was attacked by the Tatars from two sides - from the front and from the rear - and was completely destroyed: a significant part of the Russian warriors were drowned during a disorderly retreat across the Volga.
6. Having received news of the defeat, the Russian government ordered the remnants of the defeated army not to resume hostilities, but to wait for reinforcements and began to form a new army (2nd), intending to organize an offensive with the forces of two armies.
7. But on June 22, 1506, the Russian cavalry of the 1st Army (which had not yet taken part in battles) approached Kazan, and the Russian command, not expecting the approach of the 2nd Army, contrary to the ban from Moscow, decided to launch a new offensive on Kazan. However, this offensive also ended in the complete defeat of the Russian troops, as a result of which the 1st Army practically ceased to exist as an independent military force. Out of 100 thousand people. Only 7 thousand remained alive.
The Tatar army that defeated the Russians numbered 50 thousand people. (30 thousand - infantry, 20 thousand - cavalry).
8. The defeated Russian army fled from Kazan territory, pursued by the Kazan cavalry. The retreaters were caught up 40 km from the Russian border along the river. Sura, but then the Tatars stopped pursuing. Not a single Tatar detachment violated the Russian border. The Tatars did not use their military advantage, believing that it was important to simply expel the Russians from their borders. Meanwhile, Moscow was seriously afraid of a Tatar invasion, since the war had not formally ended.
9. In 1507, with the establishment of winter roads, Tatar troops again began military operations in the border areas, trying to force the Russians to request and sign peace, but during the spring thaw, military operations were again suspended.
10. Since there were no proposals for peace from the Russian side, which had suffered a severe defeat, in March 1507 the Kazan ambassador Abdullah was sent to Moscow, offering to restore peaceful relations.
The Russian government seized on this, but demanded, as a precondition for the start of peace negotiations, the release of the ambassador - clerk Mikhail Andreevich Klyapik-Yaropkin. The Tatars promised to release all members of the Russian embassy immediately after peace was concluded. On these conditions, peace negotiations began, which lasted from March 17, 1507 to mid-December 1507, alternately in Moscow and Kazan.
They took part:
From Russia: Alexey Lukin (embassy clerk, messenger), Ivan Grigorievich Poplevin (okolnichy, boyar), Yakul (Elizar) Sukov (secretary).
From the Kazan Khanate: Barat-Seit, prince, ambassador, Abdullah - official of the Khan's Council, Buzek - bakshi.
PEACE TREATY OF THE KAZAN KHANATE WITH THE MOSCOW STATE 1507
Kazan-Russian peace treaty of 1507
Kazan-Moscow peace treaty of 1507
Place of signing: Moscow - Kazan
Contents of the agreement: Two articles.
Authorized parties:
From the Moscow Grand Duchy:
Ambassador Poplevin Ivan Grigorievich, boyar, okolnichy,
Ambassadorial clerk Alexey Lukin.
From the Kazan Khanate: Ambassador, Prince Barat-Seit.
Agreement conditions:
1. The status quo was established - “peace according to antiquity and friendship, as was the case with Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich” (i.e. under Ivan III).
2. Russian prisoners returned completely.
Note:
Military failures of Russian troops in the war of 1505-1507. were so significant that the government of Vasily IV did not even think about revenge or continuing the clearly hostile policy towards the Kazan Khanate after the conclusion of peace in 1507.
But defensive measures were taken.
The first measure The strengthening of the Russian-Kazan border was undertaken: a new stone fortress was created in Nizhny Novgorod based on the fortification achievements of the 16th century.
Second measure was the achievement through diplomatic means of the release of part of the Russian prisoners captured by the Tatars in the campaign of 1506 and not yet sold into slavery in the Crimean and Central Asian slave markets. This was achieved by January 1508.
For his part, Muhammad-Emin also returned to pursuing a foreign trade policy friendly towards the Moscow state. (To a large extent, under the influence of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, an ally of Moscow at that time, and Queen (Khansha) Nursultan, who occupied a pro-Moscow position.)
All these realities were legally secured by the signing of the “eternal peace” treaty.
RUSSIAN-TATAR AGREEMENT ON “ETERNAL PEACE” 1512
Moscow-Kazan Treaty on “Eternal Peace” and “Unmovable Love” 1512
Kazan-Moscow Treaty of Perpetual Peace 1512
Date of signing: January-February 1512
Place of signing: Tyurin Alexander
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Ulu-Muhammad.
Drawing by F. Islamov
In 1438, the last khan of the Golden Horde, Ulu-Mukhammed, with the remnants of his army, left Saray-Batu and headed to Belev (a Russian town on the Oka River as part of the Golden Horde). In the same year he goes to Nizhny Novgorod and stays in its old part. He lived there for eight years, during which Ulu-Muhammad developed a not entirely simple relationship with the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II. Several military clashes took place between them: near Belev in 1438 and near Suzdal in 1445. Vasily II suffered a major defeat and was captured. However, in the same 1445 he was released for a large ransom. In the autumn, Ulu-Muhammad's troops headed towards Kazan. But along the way, Ulu-Muhammad died and his army was led by his eldest son Mahmutek. Kazan was taken, Ali Bey, the ruler of Kazan, was removed from power, and Mahmutek proclaimed himself the khan of a new state in the Middle Volga region - the Kazan Khanate.
An image of the legendary Tsar Sain, who chose the site for the founding of Kazan. "Kazan History"
The Kazan Khanate occupied the northern territory of the former Golden Horde and largely coincided with the lands of the former Volga Bulgaria. In the east, the borders of the state reached the Ural Mountains and bordered the Siberian Khanate. The southeastern borders of the Kazan Khanate bordered the Nogai Horde and reached the river. Samara. And the southernmost borders reached modern Saratov. In the west, the border ran along the river. Sura, in the north the border reached the middle reaches of the Vyatka and bordered the taiga zone.
Victory of Ulu-Muhammad in the Battle of Belsk over Vasily II.
Second half of the 17th century. "Kazan History"
The ethnic basis of the population of the Kazan Khanate was the Tatar population (Kazan Tatars), who at that time were called in Russian chronicles: Tatars, Kazanians or Besermen (i.e. Muslims). The Tatars occupied the central lands of the state - “Order”, i.e. the territory between the Volga and Kama, north of the Kama. Quite a large Tatar population lived on the “Mountain Side” - on the right bank of the Volga, in the Sviyaga basin. Today, about 700 settlements from the period of the Kazan Khanate are known. 500 of them are located in Zakazanye, 150 on the Mountain Side and about 50 in Zakamye. In addition to the Tatars, some Turkic and Finno-Ugric peoples of the Middle Volga and Urals lived in the state or were under political and cultural influence: the western part of the Bashkirs, Chuvashes, Ars (Udmurts), Cheremis (Mari), Mordovians.
Ceramic cannonball, hollow inside, first half of the 16th century
Representatives of other nations (merchants from Armenia, Muscovy and other states) also lived in the cities of the state, and primarily in the capital Kazan.
The Middle Volga region on the map of the Pizzigani brothers (XIV century)
From the document:
“The same autumn (1445) Tsar Mamotyak (Makhmutek), Ulu-Magmet’s son, took the city of Kazan, killed the patrimony of the Kazan prince Libey, and sat down to reign in Kazan.”
From the Resurrection Chronicle
“And Tsar Mamutyak came from Kurmysh, took Kazan, and killed the Kazan prince Azy, and he himself reigned in Kazan, and from there the Kazan kingdom began to exist.”
From the Nikon Chronicle
“In addition to the Tatar language, there are 5 different languages in that kingdom: Mordovian, Chuvash, Cheremis, Voitetsky, or Arsky, the fifth Bashkir”
From the book “The Capture of Kazan” by the Russian governor
during the campaign against Kazan in 1552 by A. Kurbsky
“These Tatars are more educated than others (meaning other Tatars - R.F.), since they cultivate fields, live in houses and engage in various trades
Western European traveler
XVI century S. Herberstein
Historians' opinion:
“The plan for the founding of the Kazan Khanate can be called ingenious, because Khan Muhammad understood the peculiarity of the ancient cultural local population, and having decided to restore the Muslim state in the Middle Volga region, he correctly assessed the chances of its lasting existence.”
“When moving from the Moscow state to the Kazan Khanate, the traveler found himself in the same forested country, only the rivers here were even richer, their banks more deserted, but the general character of the area did not change. Only below Kazan did the coniferous forests give way to deciduous ones, and the Volga mountains grew even larger. The mountain side was quite densely covered with Cheremis, Chuvash and Mordovian villages, scattered among forests and fields.”
M.G.Khudyakov
“In the formation of the Kazan Khanate, some representatives of Russian historical science... saw a simple restoration of the former Bulgar Khanate. This conclusion was not confirmed in the few historical monuments that historians of the Kazan Khanate have at their disposal... The Kazan Khanate, like other Tatar states formed on the ruins of the Golden Horde, in its structure in many ways resembled in miniature the former Golden Horde.”
M.G.Safargaliev
“Uluk-Muhammad, proud of his victory over the Russians, moved with Mahmutek from Kurmysh to Kazan with the goal of conquering it; Makhmutek, prompted by ambition, decided to kill his father shortly before the capture of Kazan, or a little time later.”
V.V. Velyaminov-Zernov
“After the seizure of power by Mahmutek, i.e. Juchid, practically the new Horde khan, the status of the Kazan principality also changed. It ceased to be only a principality with local government, but became a separate state led by a khan.”
R.G. Fakhrutdinov
The formation of the Kazan Khanate began in 1438, when the Golden Horde finally collapsed. Kazan became its capital, and its first ruler was Ulug-Muhammad. The territory of the Khanate extended from the Sura River to and from the Upper Kama region to the Samara Luka.
The Kazan Khanate consisted of four main darug districts: Alat, Arsky, Galician and Zureysky. The darugs were divided into uluses, each of which included several settlements. Turkic-speaking and Finno-Ugric peoples lived on the territory of the Khanate. The population called themselves Kazanli. Their religion was Islam.
Traditionally, the most respected classes were the nobility and the clergy. The most important persons from them were part of the only authority - the Divan. The military classes included Oglans and Cossacks. Oghlans were commanders of mounted troops, and Cossacks were ordinary soldiers.
The unprivileged classes included traders, peasants, artisans and civilian workers. They had to pay certain yasak (10% of income), clan (rent), kulus, salyg, bach, kultyka, sala-kharaji (rural tax), kharaj kharajat (trade tax), susun (food tax), tyutynsyan (tax from each pipe), gulufe (forage), wait.
Serfdom and slavery also flourished on the lands of the Kazan Khanate. (kishi) worked for landowners. Slaves-prisoners of war also performed similar work. After 6 years, such a slave received freedom, but still did not have the right to leave the country.
The position of the head of state was called "Khan-Chingizid". His advisors, the emirs, were also commanders of the troops. Often Chingizid Khan only formally ruled the country, but in reality he was completely dependent on the Divan. Positions in the Divan were inherited and were for life. In exceptional circumstances, a kurultai was convened, which was attended by representatives of the three most important segments of the population: the army, the clergy and farmers.
Residents of the Kazakh Khanate grew rye, barley, spelled and oats. Hunting, beekeeping, fishing, beekeeping, and leatherworking were also developed.
Trade was no less important. The external one was more developed than the internal one, for example, the Kazan Khanate had trade relations with Russia, Persia and Turkestan. The slave trade occupied a special place in the state economy. Numerous prisoners of war usually became slaves.
Islam reigned supreme in the Kazan Khanate. The clergy was headed by a seid, who was direct. Sheikhs, imams, mullahs, Danishmends, dervishes, hajis and hafiz were also considered persons of clergy. In addition to Islam, Sufism, which came from Turkestan, was widespread in the khanate.
The main and most numerous of the Kazan Khanate was its numerous cavalry. Infantry and artillery were also present, but were few in number and rather insignificant compared to the cavalry.
Since the army of the Kazan Khanate was not large enough for an offensive war, the Kazan people pursued defensive war tactics, periodically raiding areas in the possession of Russian princes.
In 1467, Russian troops organized a campaign against the Kazan Khanate with the aim of placing on the throne a person loyal to the Khanate. After this, in the 80s of the 15th century, the Russian government regularly intervened in the struggle for the throne of the Khanate. The result of this confrontation was the seizure of the Kazan Khanate in 1487 by Moscow troops and the occupation of the Kazan throne by Khan Muhammad-Emin, obedient to Moscow. In 1552, the army of Ivan IV took Kazan by storm, which resulted in the annexation of the Kazan Khanate to the Moscow Principality. After this event, the Kazan Khanate ceased to exist as a separate state.
KAZAN KHANATE - Tatar state in the Middle Volga region in the mid-15th - mid-16th centuries.
The capital is the city of Kazan. Official-tsi-al-but-no-va-lo in the Tatar sources is also the Bulgar vi-laya, and in the Russian ones - the Kazan Tsar. st. Sfor-mi-ro-va-los from emi-ra-tov Pri-ka-za-nya (along the Ka-zan-ka river) and Pre-ka-mya Bul-gar-sko-go ulu-sa Zo-lo -that Horde (see Horde raids). Being a large and economically developed state, it played an important role in the political economy. to-rii of Eastern Europe and eth-no-so-ci-al-noy is-to-rii of the Vol-go-Ural-region. The research gives the opportunity only to roughly outline the borders of the Kazan Khanate. His territory included the lands of Kam-skaya and Sy-p-lin-skaya and Kos-tyats-skaya and Be-lo-Volzh-skaya and Vo-tyats-koi and Bash -kyr-skaya.” Area about 250 thousand km2 (1st half of the 16th century).
The Kazan Khanate was divided into da-ru-gi: Alat-skaya, Ar-skaya, Ga-litskaya, Zyu-rey-skaya, and also No-gai-skaya (in the 1540-1550s years), which in turn were divided into “hundreds,” etc. The cities of Kazan, Ala-bu-ga, Ar-cha, Bol- gar, Jo-ri, Is-ke-Ka-zan, Ka-shan, Tya-tesh, Chal-ly represented military-political and cultural -eco-no-mic centers of the khan-st-va. The population of the Khanate has become freely under the power of the Khan's ancestors of the Kazan ta-tars (“ka- zan-ly-lar", "ka-zan-stii ta-ta-ry"), ma-riy-tsev (che-re-mi-sy), mord-you, chu-va-shey and ud-mur- tov (vo-tya-ki, ary), as well as bash-ki-ry (total number about 400 thousand people).
The state structure of the Kazan Khanate was based on eastern traditions. The supreme power under-le-zha-la ha-nu - according to Chin-gis-ha-na. Once upon a time, the khan was only formally the sole ruler, real power under-le-zha-la di -va-well - with-b-ra-niu before the hundred-vi-te-ley of the highest spiritual and secular aristocracy, which I am part of- la-li po-tom-ki about-ro-ka Mu-ham-me-da - sei-i-dy, as well as ka-ra-chi-be-ki, og-la-ny, etc. Know of the Kazan Khanate in the co-cup-no-sti named “ak so-yak-ler” or “zur ke-she-ler” (white bone or big people ). The military-but-serving nobility of the Kazan Khanate included og-la-novs, be-kovs, emirs, murzas and kaza-kovs, while the holder of the a small amount of hereditary ownership, who served his sue-ze-re-n for tax benefits and a judicial im- mu-ni-tet, had ti-tul “soy-ur-gal” or “tar-khan”. This nobility, who had completely emerged from other Tatar states, stood only from the representative -those Tatar clans, among which you were the 4 right-handed clans - Shi-rin, Baryn, Ar-gyn and Kyp-chak ( the tradition of their existence goes back to the time of the Hun-nu), and in the 1540-1550s the Man-gyt clan did the same. To resolve the most important issues, all the nobility came together - ku-rul-tai (“the whole land of Kazan”). In the Kazan Khanate, there must be ata-ly-ka - vo-pi-ta-te-la of the khan’s children, palace, administrative and state functions are emi-ry, ha-ki-we, bakh-shi, etc., judicial functions are ka-zi. On the peri-feriy ter-ri-to-ri-yah in the management of the teaching-st-vo-va-la local ari-sto-kra-tiya (for example, honeycomb -ni-ki at che-re-mi-sov or tu-ro at vo-cha-kov).
According to the date of the Kazan Khanate, the state fortresses (ke-she-ler) and for-vi-si-my from a specific feo-da-la people and military prisoners (kol-lar) - “ka-ra ha-lyk” (black people). The main functions of the Tatar rural area are the ob-e-di-nyon-no-go in the communities-no-rod-st-ven-nye (several villages), there was arable land, stable cattle-water-stations, poultry-tse-water-stations and sa- do-water-st-vo; urban village - re-craft (pottery, de-re-in-ra-ba-you-vayu-shchee, k-zhe-ven-noe, blacksmith -noe, weaving, jewelry) and trade, including inter-native (ex-port: handicrafts- de-lia, furs, honey, livestock, bread, slaves; import: salt, goods, silk and cotton fabrics -ni, jewelry from de-lia, bu-ma-ha, books). Among the peri-fe-rii of the Kazan Khanate, lands-le-de-lie developed (mountain che-re-mi-sy, sea-two, chu -va-shi), ta-bun-noe or do-mash-nee sko-to-vo-st-vo (bash-ki-ry, che-re-mi-sy, mord-va, chu-va-shi ), bird-tse-water-st-vo, vegetable-rod-no-thing-st-vo, bee-lo-water-st-vo, hunting, fishing-st-vo and so- bi-ra-tel-st-vo.
The army of the Kazan Khanate consisted of 5 thousand Tatar cavalry and 25-40 thousand infantry.
The main na-lo-ga-mi and wine-no-sty-mi were yasak, am-bar-ma-ly, il-chi-ku-nak, ha-raj, etc. Mu-sul-ma -don’t you pay the same way for go-shur and zakat, and not-mu-sul-ma-ne - ji-ziyu. In the Kazan Khanate, the pre-ob-la-dal is-lam (near po-lo-vi-ny na-se-le-niya - sun-ni-you, after-the-wa-te-li-teaching Abu Ha-ni-fa), there was a complete belief, which was connected with the traditions of Bul-ga-rii Volga-Kama, Mongol Empire and Golden Horde. There was an Armenian church in Ka-za-ni, and b. including Finnish-Ugric and part of the Turkic na-se-le-niya is-po-ve-do-va-li language. Islam spread not-on-strong-st-ven-but - in the re-zul-ta-those strengthening of eth-but-cultural con-con-so Comrade The Muslim spirit-ho-ven-st-vo (shei-khi, mu-ly, ima-we, etc.) for-no-even place in the Kazan Khanate, and this Id was considered the second-largest person in the country after Kha-na, and often headed the government in periods between w-du-tsar-st-via and you-have-understood some serious diplomatic-plo-ma-tical russian-techniques. The spirit-ho-ven-st-vo played an important role in the enlightenment of the world, which is how-to-help any medical-re-se at the So-bor-noy me-che-ti in Ka-za-ni, as well as a lot of other medical-re-se and mek-te-bov . In the Kazan Khanate, tra-di-tion is-to-rio-pi-sa-niya, juris-pru-den-tion (on the basis of sha-ria- ta), literature, musical creativity, de-co-ra-tiv-but-applied art, etc.
Po-li-ti-che-is-to-ria
In the is-rio-graphy there are two main points of view from the time of the formation Kazan Khanate. According to the first of them, his os-no-va-te-lem was the former golden-to-or-dyn khan Ulug-Mu-ham-med and is -riu khan-st-va follows the weight from 1437 or 1438 (G.I. Pe-re-tyat-kovich, Sh. Mard-zhani, N.P. Za-gos -kin, H. At-la-si, M. G. Khu-dya-kov, A. N. Ku-rat, M. A. Us-ma-nov, D. M. Is-kha-kov and others .). Accord-las-but the second (confirmed-by-most-shin-st-vom is-of-precise-ni-kov) - the history of the Khanate follows the news from the axis -nor 1445, from the beginning of the reign in Ka-za-ni Mah-mu-da, son of Ulug-Mu-ham-me-da (V.V. Vel-ya-mi -nov-Zer-nov, N. F. Ka-li-nin, S. Kh. Ali-shev, R. G. Fakh-rut-di-nov, etc.).
The existence of Ulug-Mu-ham-me-da in Ka-za-nor is not confirmed, in most cases it is used Precisely, he is not called the Kazan khan, but the ro-do-na-chal-nik of the first di-na-stia of the Kazan khans. new Even before the final formalization of the Khanate, at the end of 1444 - beginning of 1445, the Kazan khans began to move to the lands of the Moscow Grand Duchy. After 1448 and until the end of the reign of Mah-mu-da and his son Ha-li-la (1467) between the Kazan Khanate and the Russian princes -mi fact-ti-che-ski su-s-st-vo-va-li-peaceful from-no-she-niya. At this time, inside the Kazan nobility a group is forming, ori-en-ti-ro-vav-shaya to co- skid with Moscow.
After the death of Kha-li-la, his brother Ib-ra-gim (1467-1479) became khan, and the pro-Moscow nobility came to the throne of Ka -si-ma, son of Ulug-Mu-ham-me-da and pr-vi-te-lya of the Ka-si-mov-king-st-va. Ka-sim appealed for help and permission to the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Va-sil-e-vi- Chu, who supported him, which became the beginning of the 1st Kazan-Russian War (1467-1469) . However, the military campaign of 1467 did not bring Ka-si-mu, and the Russian government did not try to then we will carry it to the Kazan throne. Under Ib-ra-gi-me, the Khanate ras-shi-ri-lo ruled in the Upper Pri-Kamye and Vyatka land. According to the result of the 2nd Kazan-Russian War (1478), the Khan was forced to make peace on the Russian terms.
In the reign of the son of Ib-ra-gi-ma - Ali (Il-ga-ma) (1479-1487, with re-ry-va-mi) the khanate was under the villages live in peaceful relations with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. One day in the summer of 1482, they found themselves on the brink of war, because the Grand Duchy of Moscow actively interfered in the internal affairs of the Kazan Khanate (in the race between the sto-ron-ni-ka-mi Ali and his brother Mu-ham-med-Emin). As a result of military pressure (Ivan III and his appanage princes lived in Vladimir - point - those gathering of the entire Russian army; large forces were concentrated in Nizhny Novgorod, the voyage began - of the Russian army on ships to Ka-za-ni) peace was concluded on Russian terms (specific articles of the treaty in practice) definitely not preserved). In the mid-1480s, the son of Ib-ra-gi-ma Mu-kham-med-Emin, who was supported by The Russian troops managed to temporarily take the throne in Ka-za-ni in 1485-1487.
As a result of the 3rd Kazan-Russian War of 1487, Ivan III Va-sil-e-vich accepted the title of “Prince of Bol-gar-skogo” and again placed Mu-kham-med-Emin on the throne of the Kazan Khanate (1487-1495). Us-lo-viya in-tsa-re-niya op-re-de-li-you-greasy status of Mu-ham-med-Emi-na in his from-no-she-ni-yah with Ivan III, jointly with you, the khan-st-va under the pa-tro-na-tom of the Russian state. Khan Ali with his family and all his family were you in the Russian sto-ro (they were sent into exile in Volo- where and on Be-lo-oz-ro), the “ko-ro-mol-Kazan princes” were kaz-not in Moscow at the order of the great prince-zya. At the same time, the Russian authorities did not lay claim to the lands of the Khanate and did not interfere in its internal structure.
Po-li-ti-ka Mu-ham-med-Emi-na spro-vo-tsi-ro-va-la in 1495 for the thief of local be-kovs, as a result -someone in 1496 was ascended to the Kazan throne with the support of mainly the No-Gai, as well as the Siberian Ta-tars. ve-den Siberian Chin-gi-sid - Ma-muk, who could not stay in Ka-za-ni. The new khan was the brother of Mu-ham-med-Emin - Abd al-La-tif (1496-1502), an active pro-moscovite po-li-ti-ku and striving to limit the influence of the nobility in the Kazan Khanate. In 1500, the No-Gai mur-zy Mu-sa and Yam-gur-chi or-ga-ni-zo-va-li marched on the Kazan Khanate.
The ra-zo-re-nie of the ter-ri-to-rii of the Khanate of No-Gaya-mi led to the strengthening of anti-Russian sentiments. Abd al-La-tif failed to act on them, as a result of which he was arrested on the orders of Ivan III Va -sil-e-vi-cha and so-slan on Be-lo-lake-ro. The Kazan throne was again occupied by Mu-kham-med-Emin (1502-1518). In the spring - summer of 1505, an acute conflict broke out during the re-registration in Moscow, and then in Ka-za-ni. As a result, Mu-kham-med-Emin arrested the Russian ambassador M.S. Klya-pi-ka Erop-ki-na, besides that, og-ra-biv, for- then he was in prison, sold into slavery in the No-gai Horde, or executed Russian merchants. In the same year, this time the Kazan Khan started the 4th Kazan-Russian War. After the arrival of the Russian troops, long-term re-gov-ditch in the spring - summer of 1507, the of many Russian words, some merchants, and also Russian soldiers who were captured in 1506, peace was concluded, from me-niv -shiy syu-ze-re-ni-tet of the Russian state over the Kazan Khanate.
In 1512, an “eternal peace” was concluded between the Kazan Khanate and the Russian state, one of the conditions that was not due to to bring to the throne of the Khanate no one “without the knowledge” of the Grand Duke of Moscow. Mu-kham-med-Emin su-sche-st-ven-but-dor-val po-li-ti-ko-eco-no-miche-influence of the nobility in the Khanate and thereby strengthened his power. After his death, the Kazan nobility led by Ulug-ka-ra-chi-be-kom Bu-la-t Shi-rin, according to the pre-variant so-verb co-va-nu with the Grand Duke of Moscow Va-si-li-III Iva-no-vi-chem, with-gla-si-la to the throne of ka-si-mov-sko-go ha -on Shah-Ali (1519-1521), because the khans of the Great Horde were against the Crimean di-nasty of Gi-re-ev and pre- se-shey-xia di-na-stii Ulug-Mu-ham-me-da. A Russian gar-ni-zon appeared in Ka-za-ni. This kind of situation brought to the not-will-st-vu the knowledge of the khan-st-va, who came from Shah-Ali from-gna-la, calling to the throne the Crimean Tsar-re-vi-cha Sa-gib-Gi-ray (subsequently the Crimean Khan Sa-gib-Gi-ray I), who ry began an active anti-Russian po-li-ti-ku.
In 1521, ak-ti-vi-zi-ro-va-lis on-be-gi of the Kazan khans on the lands of the Russian state, a number of which were completed -but-time-but with the arrival of the brother of Sa-gib-Gi-rey - Crimean ha-na Mu-kham-med-Gi-rey I - to Mo-sk-vu . In 1523, as a result of the move on the land, the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasiliy III built on the territory ri-to-rii of the Kazan Khanate (on the right bank, at the mouth of the Su-ra River) Va-sil-city (now Va-sil-sursk), which became the first step-gom on the way to the re-re-niya of the Khanate. In 1523, Sa-gib-Gi-ray began the 5th Kazan-Russian war, one after the in-for reached him -ma-tion about the murder-st-ve of no-gaya-mi Mu-kham-med-Gi-rey I and the outbreak in the Crimean Khan-st-ve between-do-uso-bi-tse, he was ready to go there.
The Kazan throne was taken over by his nephew - Sa-fa-Gi-rey (1524-1531). Under-pi-san-noe in the middle of August 1524, the re-re-mi-rie between the Kazan Khanate and the Russian state stopped military actions and the obligation of Sa-fa-Gi-ray (whose marriage formal-but was presented as an act of regret-lo-va-niya Va- si-li-em III in response to the “che-lo-bi-tye of the whole land of Kazan”) urgently send a representative in-sol-st -in Moscow. By the beginning of the re-ditch (November 1524), the Kazan Khanate was subjected to the devastation of the No-Gai troops in the Crimea there was an armed struggle for the throne, so the Russian side failed to achieve significant gains. In the spring of 1525, at the insistence of the Russian side, Khan Sa-fa-Gi-rey co-gla-forced the transfer of trade from Ka-za-ni to Nizhny Novgorod. ny Novgorod. One day, in 1530, Sa-fa-Gi-rey, relying on the “pro-gai party” of the Kazan nobility, spro-vo-ci-ro -the beginning of the 6th Kazan-Russian War, teaching in Ka-za-ni “sra-mo-tu ve-li-ku” to the Russian ambassador A.F. Pil-emo-wu Sa-bu-ro-wu (ve-ro-yat-but, he was put under arrest and enslaved).
Long-term pere-go-vo-ry in Moscow and Ka-za-ni (November 1530 - May 1531), beyond the power of the Crimeans and No-ga -ev brought to the uso-b-tse in the Kazan Khanate with participation in the dat-no-go na-se-le-niya. In 1531, Sa-fa-Gi-ray fled to the No-gai Or-da, and his side was not executed. The strengthening of Russian influence in the Khanate led to the fact that, in agreement with Vasily III, the new khan 1531 (according to other sources, 1532) Shah-Ali’s brother Jan-Ali became. He actively pro-Russian po-li-ti-ku, in a number of cases recognizing and limiting the su- ve-re-ni-te-ta of the Kazan Khanate (for example, in 1534, the Kazan troops marched as part of the Russian army to war with the Grand Duchy of Li -tov-sky). The reign of Sa-gib-Gi-reya I in the Crimea (1532) and the death of Va-si-liy III Ivan-no-vi-cha (1533) led to the to the influence of the Russian state on the Kazan Khanate, to the strengthening of anti-Russian sentiments there, which were under the influence of women of the Crimean Khanate. For-go-thief of 1535, or-ga-ni-zo-van-ny Bu-la-tom Shi-ri-nom and khan-bi-ke Gau-har-shad (Kov-gor-shat), led to the murder of Jan-Ali and the new accession to the throne of Sa-fa-Gi-ray (1535-1546).
In January 1536, the Russian government exiled Shah-Ali, and at the end of the same year, the lo troops on the lands of the Kazan Khanate. From-that Sa-fa-Gi-rey became new on-be-gi to Russian lands. Under the pressure of Sa-gib-Gi-rey I in 1538-1541, negotiations were carried out between the Kazan Khanate and the Russian state. In 1541, Bu-lat Shi-rin communicated to Moscow about the desire of the nobility to overthrow Sa-fa-Gi-ray, since his power was through measured, but intensified. Since 1545, the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow (from 1547 - Tsar) Ivan IV Va-sil-e-vi-cha Groz-no-go na-cha-lo or-ga-ni-zo-vy-vat re-gu-lyar-nye Kazan-kho-dy. The re-zul-ta-you of the 1st Kazan campaign (1545) led to internal unrest in the Kazan Khanate, and you also drove away many before the hundred-vi-te-lei of the Kazan nobility in Moscow.
In 1545, Sa-fa-Gi-rey ob-vi-nil the Kazan nobility in iz-me-ne and kaz-nil Bu-la-ta Shi-ri-na, khan-bi-ke Gau-har -shada and others, after which in 1546 he was expelled from Ka-za-ni, and a number of Crimeans who fled from Ka-za-ni were- Have you ever been beaten by Russian troops on Ka-me during an attempt to break into the Crimean Khan-state? Shah-Ali again became the Kazan khan (June - July 1546), to whom the Kazan-tsy brought something, at one time... I also swore oath to the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan IV Va-sil-e-vi-chu. Sa-fa-Gi-ray, with the support of the Crimean, No-Gai and As-t-ra-khan ta-tars, tried to regain his kazan. throne, but unsuccessfully. One day, another uso-bi-tsa in Ka-za-ni led to the flight of Shah-Ali and the new city of Sa- fa-Gi-reya (1546-1549). The side of the pro-Russian ori-en-ta-tion would be Kaz-not, di-van sfor-mi-ro-van only from the Crimean and pro-Crimean ski na-stro-en-nyh ta-tar, as well as, vi-di-mo, and no-gai-tsev.
At the end of 1546, shales from the local nobility of the Mountain side of the Kazan Khanate (che-re-mi-sov and Chu-va-shey) with a request to “send an army to Kazan” and with a promise that “they are with the military they want to live.” With the intention of restoring Shah-Ali on the throne of the Kazan Khanate, the Russian pra-vi-tel-st-vo or-ga-ni-zo-va-lo but - new Kazan campaigns (February - March 1547; January - February 1548), but Sa-fa-Gi-ray was able to maintain power. After the death of Sa-fa-Gi-ray, power in the Kazan Khanate passed to his young son Ute-mysh-Gi-ray and Khan-she Syu-yum -bi-ke (1549-1551), around which various groups of Kazan nobility united at times. Without giving up trying to restore the power of Shah Ali in the Kazan Khanate, the Russian government came before the march of 1550 and 1551. In 1551, on the territory of the Khanate, at the mouth of the Sviy-ga River, the Russian fortress of Sviyazhsk was built.
Expanded ideological background of the Russian na-stu-p-le-niy on Kazan: legal ar-gu-men-you (Kazan-tsy na-ru-shi-li under-sya-gu, given in 1546 by Shah-Ali and Ivan IV) was completed by the confession-sio-nal-ny-mi (during I'm on-be-gov Ka-zan-tsy built-ru-sha-li-temples and kept-in-slave many-gesture-in-right-glorious Christians ). These moves of the Russian troops caused a new surge in the internal political struggle in Ka-za-ni, what can be done in-three-gi Kazan-princes-emig-rans and diplomatic isolation of the Kazan Khanate: proposals for the new Crimea -go ha-na De-v-let-Gi-rey I, made with the sanction of the Turkish sul-ta-na, about the anti-Russian union of two khanates and No-gai- the Russian Horde in 1549 and 1551 had a predominant character; but-gai-skie mur-zy as a whole have-know-the-or-tet-the rights to Kazan of the Moscow can-di-da-ta under the conditions of the plat-te -zhey from the khan-st-va in their favor.
The Kazan nobility entered into negotiations with the presence of Ivan IV and under pressure from The government accepted all the Russian conditions, which included the transfer of the Mountain Side into the Russian state, the adoption of throne in Ka-za-ni Shah-Ali, co-yuz-but-you-greasy status of the Kazan Khanate, you-da-chu Ute-mysh-Gi-reya, Syu-yum-bi-ke, os -the transfer of the persons of their “Crimean party” and their families to the Russian state, the release of all Russian prisoners and the transfer of their power people in Svi-yazh-sk (according to Russian data, 60 thousand people left during the summer-non-autumn months, not counting direct maybe in the northern and northeastern regions of the Russian state, as well as the nearby Volga counties).
The Kazan throne was again occupied by Shah Ali (1551-1552). In November 1551, an internal political situation again arose in the Khan-st-t-ve. The Russian government, striving for peace with the unification of all the khans, acts immediately in two on-right-le-ni-yah. It pre-la-ha-lo Shah-Ali “uk-re-drink” Ka-zan with the entry of Russian troops, but the khan (under the conditions of new complaints in Ka -si-mo-ve) agreed only on the damage of art-til-le-rii and bo-e-pri-pa-sov in Ka-za-ni, installation the most hostile persons with their “free” departure to Svi-yazhsk.
At one time, the Russian government negotiated with the opposition Shah-Ali from Kazan know, na-ho-div-shi-mi-sya in Moscow in the quality of words or emig-ran-tov. They suggested that Shah Ali would be removed from the throne, and the Kazan Khanate would be governed in the name of his king in his place -ka-mi, and ga-ran-ti-ro-va-li so-gla-sie kazan-tsev on this under the condition of maintaining so-ci-al-no- the state and power of the nobility, as well as traditional orders. The idea of introducing the direct rule of Ivan IV in the Kazan Khanate led to an anti-mo-s-cov-stan led by em- ra-mi and this-i-dom Kul-Sha-rif-fom, from-gna-niu Shah-Ali and the Russian gar-ni-zo-na from Ka-za-ni. As-t-ra-khan Chin-gi-sid Yad-gar-Mu-ham-med became the Khan of the Kazan Khanate.
The re-entry in Ka-za-ni called for the response measures of the Russian government. At the meeting of the Bo-Yar Duma in April 1552, a decision was made about the preparation of another ka- Zan-skogo-go-da with the goal of winning the Kazan Khanate. As a result of the march of 1552 and the more than 40-day siege of 10/02/1552, Kazan was taken, and the Kazan Khanate was re-re-sta -to exist as a self-sustaining state.
KAZAN KHANATE, a feudal state in the Middle Volga and Kama region (1438–1552), separated from the Golden Horde. It was formed on the territory of Volga Bulgaria from the territories of the Bulgarian, Dzhuketau, Kazan and other principalities. Founder - Ulug-Muhammad. The capital of the Khanate is Kazan. There were over 700 settlements on the territory of the Kazan Khanate. Large cities: Alat, Archa, Kashan, Bolgar, Iski-Kazan, Laesh, Tetyushi, Chally - were centers of darugs, economic, religious and cultural life of the population. They were led by emirs.
The Kazan Khanate was divided into darugs, which included dependent regions. Initially there were 4 darugs: Alat, Arsk, Galician, Zureyskaya and Nogai. Darugs were ruled by Karachibeks or noble emirs and beks. Darugs were divided into uluses, which corresponded to territorial communities - jiens. At the head of the uluses were ulus, hundred emirs (khakims), murzas, elders, and so on, who collected taxes, legal proceedings, recruited military militia and commanded them.
The supreme power belonged to the khans from the Jochi clan: until 1518, the khans were the descendants of Ulug-Muhammad, later - from the Kichi-Muhammad dynasty, in 1518–1552 (with interruptions) - from the Giray dynasty, in 1521–1551 (with interruptions) - Shibana, in 1552 - Ahmad. Only Genghisids who professed Islam could be khans. Formally, the khans were autocratic monarchs, their names were pronounced during the khutbah prayer in mosques, they sealed all laws with their seal, and performed other state functions. In fact, power belonged to the divan, which consisted of representatives of the highest Tatar nobility; The decisive role was played by Karachibeks from the ruling families of Shirin, Argyn, Baryn and Kipchak. The highest administrative and military power was exercised by Ulug Karachibek, who was most often appointed from representatives of the Shirin clan (Bulat Shirin, his son Nur-Ali).
The social organization of the nobility had a hierarchical system associated with rights to land ownership (or the collection of a certain tax), for which their holders were obliged to serve their overlord. Ownership was divided into conditional (suyurgal) and unconditional or partially unconditional (tarkhan) exemption from all or part of taxes and duties. The highest layer of the nobility consisted of the descendants of Jochi - Oghlans, Sultans, Beks, Karachibeks and Emirs, Murzas, a layer of knighthood (chura) - Bahadurs (batyrs) and Cossacks. The most important matters in the state (the enthronement of khans, their deposition, the declaration of war, the conclusion of peace) were decided at meetings of the nobility - kurultai.
The main population consisted of the tax-paying class (kara halyk), which paid taxes to the khan or feudal lord. The main tax was yasak (yasak-kalan). In addition, land and income taxes and duties were levied), various duties were imposed: supply of provisions to troops, authorities, yamskaya and others. There were also a number of taxes on Muslims in favor of the clergy (gosher, zakat), tribute and jizya taxes, which were paid by the dependent non-Muslim population. The number of taxes and duties reached 16; Their collection was in charge of officials of over 10 categories. The population of the regions dependent on the Kazan Khanate also paid duties, yasak in favor of the khan and individual feudal lords and performed various duties.
The army consisted of militias of various darugs and cities, personal detachments of the khan and the nobility, as well as allied troops (30–50 thousand people). The backbone of the army was the nobility, which consisted of cadres of military leaders and professional warriors, mainly heavily armed cavalrymen (5-10 thousand people). The infantry played a supporting role in the battle. Firearms were used in field battles and in the defense of fortifications. When operating on rivers, a combat and transport fleet was used. Operational and tactical military art was developed, maneuvers and envelopment of the enemy, active defense, alternating strikes of archers and heavy cavalry were used to break through the ranks of the enemy and his encirclement in field battle. The Kazan khans made a number of major campaigns against neighboring lands, including Russian ones (1445, 1448, 1505, 1521, 1523, 1536.
The main occupations of the population are agriculture (based on the three-field system and steppe fallow land), cattle breeding, beekeeping, and fishing. Craft industries developed in the cities - ironworking, weapons, pottery, jewelry, leatherworking, woodworking and others. An important branch of the economy was trade, both local - with the Upper Kama region and the Southern Urals, and international - with Russia, the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus. The most important export items are furs, leather goods, honey, bread; imports - luxury goods, expensive weapons, fabrics, spices, livestock and more. The most famous fairs are Tashayak, on Gostiny Island, Arsky Field.
Construction and architecture, as well as the skill of carvers who made tombstones with floral ornaments, reached a high level. We know about some monumental buildings - Dairova Bath, Kul Sharif Mosque, Otucheva Mosque, Nur-Ali Mosque - from written sources (Russian chronicles, A.M. Kurbsky’s book “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow”) and from archaeological excavations in recent years. on the territory of the Kazan Kremlin. Archaeological excavations have revealed fragments of decorative decoration of buildings (carved alabaster slabs with arabesque patterns, details of architectural decorations made of carved stone), ceramic products (khums, jugs, bowls, plates with cut patterns and underglaze painting), and the remains of leather shoes.
On the lands of the Kazan Khanate lived Turkic-speaking (Tatars, Nogais, ancestors of modern Chuvash and Bashkirs) and Finno-Ugric (ancestors of modern Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians) peoples. The nobility were called Tatars, and the main population most often identified itself on religious grounds - Muslims. The most common (spoken and official) language was Turkic (in the form of Volga Turki), in which office work was carried out and diplomatic correspondence was conducted
The state religion in the Kazan Khanate was Islam (Hanafi madhhab). The clergy owned vast lands - waqfs. The head of the clergy was the seyid. The most famous seyids: Barash (1491–1507), Sheikh Hussein (1512–1516), Beyurgan-seid (1546), Mansur (1546) and Kul Sharif (1552). All of them enjoyed great honor and respect, took part in government and diplomatic negotiations of the Kazan khans. Sheikhs, qazis, mullahs, imams, hafiz carried out religious services, as well as legal proceedings in civil cases throughout the country.
Mektebs and madrassas were also under the jurisdiction of the clergy. Evidence has been preserved of the existence of a large madrasah and library in Kazan at the Cathedral Mosque, which was headed by Kul Sharif in 1552. Many madrasahs had handwritten libraries and book scribes worked. The literacy and level of culture of the people is evidenced by inscriptions on surviving household items and tombstones. Tatar literature developed: Muhammadyar’s poems “The Gift of Husbands” (“Tokhfәi mәrdan”) and “Light of Hearts” (“Nury Sodur”) are known, the work of Sharifi Khajitarkhani (Kul Sharif?) “Message about the victory of Kazan” (“Zafar-name-i vilayet-i Kazan"), individual poems by the poets Kul Sharif, Muhammad-Amin, Garif-bek and others. There was a historiography that came down to us in individual genealogies and in the folklore tradition (“Collection of Chronicles”, “Daftar-i Chingiz-name”).
The Kazan Khanate pursued an active foreign policy. After strengthening his internal position, Ulug-Muhammad undertook a series of campaigns against the Moscow principality (1439, 1444). In 1445, his sons Mahmud and Yakub defeated the troops of Moscow Prince Vasily II in the battle of Suzdal, who was captured. He was forced to come to an agreement, undertaking to give a large ransom and pay an annual tribute. From about the same time, the name of Ulug-Muhammad is not mentioned in sources. In 1445, his son Mahmud expelled the brothers Yakub and Kasim from Kazan and ruled until 1467. During his reign, peaceful relations were established with the Russian state and the administrative and political structure of the Kazan Khanate took shape. After the death of Mahmud in 1467, his eldest son Khalil became khan, in the same year Ibrahim took the throne, but a conspiracy was organized against him by the nobility, and the Meshchera appanage prince Kasim was invited to the throne. With the support of the Moscow prince Ivan III, Kasim undertook a campaign against Kazan in 1467, but was defeated. The Moscow-Kazan War (1467–1469 ended with the conclusion of peace, an exchange of prisoners took place. In the 1470s, the internal position of the Kazan Khanate strengthened, it began to expand its possessions in the Upper Kama region and the Vyatka region (the 1478 campaign against the city of Khlynov). Retaliatory attacks Russian troops and Ushkuiniks were repulsed in the same year.
After the death of Ibrahim (1479), internecine struggle began in the Kazan Khanate. Khan Ilgam (1479–1487), expelled the pretender to the throne, Sultan Muhammad Amin. The latter, having secured the support of Moscow, began a war against Ilgam (campaign of 1482). In 1484–1485, Muhammad-Amin occupied Kazan, but was soon overthrown. In response, a campaign of Russian troops against Kazan was organized (1487), which ended with its capture after a long siege and the deposition of the khan. During the reign of Khan Muhammad-Amin (1487–1495), the Kazan Khanate was under Moscow protectorate and pursued a common foreign policy with Moscow, in particular, it fought against the Great Horde (1493). Muhammad Amin limited the power of the diwan, which caused an explosion of discontent among the nobility in 1495. He was expelled from the throne. The Karachibeks Kul-Muhammad, Urak, Sadyr and Agish elevated the Siberian prince Mamuk from the Shiban clan to the throne. But his rule did not satisfy the Karachibeks; in 1496, Muhammad-Amin’s younger brother Abdul-Latif, who lived in Rus', was placed on the Khan’s throne. He also tried to limit the political influence of the nobility (in 1499 he suppressed a rebellion led by the Karachibek Urak), which led to conflict with the aristocrats. In 1502, Ulug Karachibek Kul-Muhammad deposed Abdul-Latif and, with the help of Russian ambassadors, achieved the return of Khan Muhammad-Amin to Kazan (1502). He managed to undermine the political (execution of Kul-Muhammad in 1502) and economic (changes in the land tenure system) influence of the large nobility and strengthen the supreme power.
In 1505–1507, Muhammad Amin inflicted two serious defeats on the Moscow troops near Kazan, concluded a number of peace agreements with Moscow (1507, 1508, 1512, 1516), and restored equal and good neighborly relations between the Kazan Khanate and the Russian state. After the death of Muhammad-Amin (December 1518), the divan, led by the Ulug Karachibek Bulat Shirin, in 1519 elevated the Kasimov Khan Shah-Ali to the Kazan throne, who promised to maintain the privileges of the nobility. However, the increasing influence of Russian advisers in the Khanate and attempts to limit the power of the Karachibeks caused a new conspiracy of the nobility and the expulsion of the khan.
In 1521, with the support of his mother, Queen Nur-Sultan, the Crimean Sultan Sahib-Girey was elevated to the Kazan throne. The new khan, relying on an alliance with Crimea, began active military operations against the Russian state: he made a victorious campaign against Moscow (1521) and forced it to pay tribute to the Kazan Khanate. In 1523, Sahib-Girey again started a war with Moscow and Astrakhan, but after the death of the Crimean Khan he suddenly decided to return to Crimea, placing his nephew Safa-Girey on the throne in 1524. With the support of the nobility (Bulat Shirin, Emir Atuch (Otuch), Atalyk Talysh, etc.), in 1524 he organized a rebuff to the Russian army, and in 1526–1528 he made peace with Moscow. In 1530, the Russian government broke the peace treaty and began a campaign against Kazan. However, the Kazan people, with the help of Nogai and Astrakhan troops, defeated the Russian regiments. The new strengthening of the khan's power led to a revolt of the nobility, which relied on the support of Moscow. In 1531 Safa-Girey was expelled and his supporters were executed.
The pro-Moscow divan, led by Khanbike Gauharshad, Bulat Shirin and Murza Kichi-Ali, in 1531 invited the Kasimov Khan Jan-Ali to the Kazan throne, who, with the consent of the Moscow government, married Syuyumbika, the daughter of the Nogai Murza Yusuf. After the death of Moscow Prince Vasily III (1533), the influence of Moscow sharply weakened, which caused a rebellion of the nobility against the policies of the khan and his entourage. Bulat Shirin and Gauharshad overthrew Jan-Ali in 1535, Safa-Girey was again elevated to the throne, who after the death of Jan-Ali took Syuyumbike as his wife. Taking advantage of the internecine struggle in Moscow, Safa-Girey organized a successful campaign against Rus' (1536–1537). As his power strengthened, the discontent of the aristocracy increased, which negotiated with Moscow about changing the ruler in the Khanate (1541 and 1545). In response to this, Safa-Girey executed part of the noble Kazan citizens, thereby opposing himself to the Kazan nobility; was overthrown as a result of a new conspiracy (led by Chura Narykov, Seyid Beyurgan and Bek Kadysh). The Kazan uprising arose in 1545–1546, and the conspirators again invited Shah Ali Khan to the throne. Meanwhile, Safa-Girey fled to the Nogai biy Yusuf, having received an army from him, returned to Kazan and overthrew Khan Shah-Ali. The reign of Safa-Girey (1546–1549) began with the executions of his opponents - Chura Narykov, Kadysh - and the rise to power of the Crimean and Nogai beks. After the death of Safa-Girey (March 1549), power passed to Utyamysh-Girey, his young son from Syuyumbike. She became regent under her son and relied on the support of the Crimean Guard led by Oglan Koshchak.
Taking advantage of the split among the Kazan nobility and the weakening of the khan's power, the Moscow government began the Kazan campaigns of 1545–1552. After the unsuccessful direct military campaigns of Ivan IV against Kazan in 1551, the Sviyazhsk fortress was built at the mouth of the Sviyaga River on the outskirts of the city, which contributed to the transition of the population of the Mountain Side, dissatisfied with the dominance of the Crimeans, to the side of the tsar. The Syuyumbike government found itself isolated. She and her son tried to escape to the Nogai Horde, but were captured. Koshchak and his people were executed, Syuyumbike and Utyamysh-Girey were sent to Moscow. In 1551, with the support of the Kazan aristocracy: Oglan Khudai-Kul, Karachibek Nur-Ali, Kul Sharif, Emir Baybars (son of Rasta), Shah Ali again ascended the throne. The Khan's decision to transfer the Mountain Side to the Russian state caused discontent among the nobility. The Great Kurultai (September 14 (24), 1551) demanded that the khan return it. Shah Ali did not want to fulfill this requirement and, using the support of the Russian garrison, began repressions against the nobility (the sons of the emir Rasta and 70 other beks were killed). After the deposition of Shah Ali in 1552, the Kazan people chose an embassy to take the oath to Tsar Ivan IV. This caused sharp discontent among part of the aristocracy and the population of the Kazan Khanate, which was taken advantage of by the beks Islam Bey, Kebek and Alikey (sons of Naryk), who rebelled against the Russians. The Kazan people destroyed the garrison and started a war with Russia, inviting the Astrakhan Sultan Yadigar-Muhammad to the throne (1552). In 1552, a large campaign of Russian troops against Kazan was launched. During a 49-day siege, the city was taken by storm (October 2(13), 1552, the Kazan Khan was captured and taken to Moscow. However, the population of the Kazan Khanate did not accept the loss of their statehood and launched stubborn resistance to the invaders (Kazan War of 1552–1556 By 1557, the last pockets of resistance were suppressed, the Kazan Khanate finally ceased to exist, and its territory became part of the Russian state and was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Order of the Kazan Palace. But the craving of the indigenous peoples for freedom was not immediately suppressed, and they ( 1572–1573, 1581–1584) tried to restore their state.
