The achievements of Yaroslav the wise briefly. Yaroslav the Wise - Grand Duke of Kievan Rus

Around 978, a son was born to the Polotsk princess Rogneda and Vladimir I Svyatoslavich, nicknamed .

During the years of his reign (1019-1054), Yaroslav gained fame as a wise ruler - he strove to enlighten the people, decorate the capital, and live in peace and harmony with his neighbors.

During his father’s life, he first ruled in Rostov, then in Novgorod. In politics, he adhered to peaceful views, but he also had to take part in the bloody civil strife for Kyiv, which began after the death of Vladimir I.

Domestic policy of Yaroslav the Wise

In 1019, having expelled Svyatopolk the Accursed, who killed three rivals and sat down in Kyiv by deception, he finally took the Kiev throne. In 1036, after the death of Mstislav, he became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.
He is trying to turn Kyiv into a “new Constantinople.” The city is expanding its borders; its territory is surrounded by a powerful rampart into which the Golden Gate is built. Yaroslav the Wise was the first to begin building monasteries. During his reign, the Hagia Sophia Cathedral and the monasteries of Saints George and Irene were built.
In 1051, for the first time he installed a Russian metropolitan in Kyiv - A.
Under him, the “book business” developed. He assembled scribes at court who translated Greek books into Slavic. Founded the first library in Kyiv.

During the years of his reign, the Russian state achieved power and prosperity. He intermarried with many European houses, marrying his sister and his daughters to the scions of royal families.

Foreign policy of Yaroslav the Wise

In 1037 he defeated the Pechenegs, who endlessly devastated the Russian lands.
His squads made campaigns against the Finns, Mazovs, and Yatvingians.
In 1043, an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantium was made, led by Vladimir, the son of Yaroslav.

Results of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise

United the Russian lands.
Finally defeated the Pechenegs.
Increased the territory of Rus' in the west and east.
Compiled a set of laws.
He approved a new order of inheritance in Rus'. He allocated separate principalities to his sons. The appanage princes were subordinate to the Great Prince of Kyiv, whose title passed to the eldest in the family.

One of the most revered ancient Russian princes is Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the son of the great (Baptist). He received the nickname “Wise” for his love of education and the creation of the first code of laws known in Rus', later called “Russian Truth”.

He is also the father, uncle and grandfather of many European rulers. At baptism, Yaroslav received the name George (or Yuri). The Russian Orthodox Church reveres him as a faithful believer and even included the day of his memory in the calendar. In a leap year it is March 4th, and in a normal year it is March 5th.

Childhood and youth

The date of birth of Yaroslav Vladimirovich is still debated today. But most historians and scientists are inclined to believe that the prince was born in 978, although no one is completely sure of this. His birthday is even more unknown.

His parents were Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, who belonged to the Rurik family, and the Polotsk princess. Although there is no agreement here either. For example, the famous historian Nikolai Kostomarov doubted that Rogneda was Yaroslav’s mother. And his French colleague Arrignon even believed that the Byzantine princess Anna gave birth to the prince. Allegedly, this circumstance explains his intervention in internal Byzantine affairs in 1043.

But for the sake of fairness, it is worth noting that the rest of the historians are inclined to consider Rogneda to be the woman who gave birth to the most famous of the ancient Russian princes.

All four offspring born in marriage with Rogneda, Izyaslav, Mstislav, Yaroslav and Vsevolod, were sent by Grand Duke Vladimir to reign in different cities. Yaroslav got Rostov. But since the boy was barely 9 years old, a breadwinner and governor Budy was assigned to him (in other sources of Buda). Later, when the matured Prince Yaroslav the Wise began to rule Novgorod, the breadwinner and mentor turned into his closest ally.

Governing body

This period is in the nature of traditions and legends. The time of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, as well as the personality himself, is tended to be idealized by some historians, and demonized by others. The truth, as usual, is somewhere in the middle.

The reign of Novgorod had a higher status than the reign of Rostov. And yet, the Novgorod ruler had a subordinate status in relation to the Kyiv ruler, that is, Vladimir. Therefore, Prince Yaroslav the Wise obligatorily paid his father 2/3 of the tribute collected from the Novgorod lands every year. It was the amount of 2 thousand hryvnia. 1 thousand remained for the maintenance of the nobleman himself and his squad. It must be said that its size was only slightly inferior to Vladimir’s squad.

Probably, it was precisely this circumstance that prompted the son to rebel and in 1014 refuse to pay a huge tribute to his father. The Novgorodians supported their mayor, as there is information about in the surviving chronicles. Vladimir became angry and began to prepare a campaign to pacify the rebels. But at that time he was advanced in age. Soon he fell ill and died suddenly, without punishing his son.

The place of his father was taken by the eldest son, Svyatopolk the Accursed. To protect himself and keep power in his hands, he destroyed three brothers: Boris, whom the people of Kiev especially loved, Gleb and Svyatoslav. The same fate awaited the Novgorod mayor. But he managed to defeat Svyatopolk in the bloody battle of Lyubech and in 1016 entered Kyiv.

The fragile truce between the brothers who divided Kyiv along the Dnieper from time to time passed into a “hot” stage. But in 1019 Svyatopolk died, and Yaroslav the Wise began undivided rule of the Kyiv throne.

The great merit of Prince Yaroslav the Wise was the victory over the Pechenegs. This happened in 1036. As the chronicles say, the city was besieged by nomads during the period when the ruler went to Novgorod, where he took part in the foundation of the temple. But having received news of the danger, he quickly returned and defeated the Pechenegs. From that moment on, their devastating and bloody raids on Rus' stopped for a short time.

The “golden” time of Yaroslav the Wise began. After the victories, the nobleman took up grandiose construction. At the site of the brilliant victory over the nomads, the St. Sophia Cathedral was founded. In many ways it was a copy of the cathedral in Constantinople. Decorated with magnificent frescoes and mosaics, the temple amazed its contemporaries with its beauty and delights the eye today.

The nobleman spared no expense on the church splendor and invited the best Greek craftsmen to decorate the cathedral. And the famous Golden Gate appeared in the city, which was repeated in Constantinople. The Church of the Annunciation grew above them.

Domestic and foreign policy

The ruler made considerable efforts to break the dependence of the Russian Orthodox Church on Byzantium, which dominated it. Therefore, in 1054, for the first time in the history of Rus', its church was headed by a Russian, and not a Greek, metropolitan. His name was Hilarion.

The internal policy of Yaroslav the Wise was aimed at increasing the education of the people and eradicating the remnants of the pagan faith. The Christian faith was instilled with renewed vigor. In this, the son continued the work of his great father, Vladimir the Baptist.

The son ordered the translation of Greek handwritten books into the Slavic language. He himself loved to read and tried to instill a love of reading and education in his subordinates. The clergy began teaching children to read and write. A school for boys appeared in Novgorod, which accepted its first 300 students.

The number of books grew rapidly and book wisdom became a kind of fashion of the time. It became prestigious to be enlightened.

The Tale of Bygone Years talks about a certain collection of books and documents, which is usually called the Library of Yaroslav the Wise. Scientists talk about different quantities: from 500 to 950 volumes. According to some sources, the library was transferred by the prince (according to other sources - by his great-grandson) to the St. Sophia Cathedral.

Since ancient books that are a thousand years old have not been found, there are many hypotheses about where they could be stored. Some claim that these may be the dungeons of the St. Sophia Cathedral, others talk about the catacombs of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and still others talk about the Vydubitsky Monastery. But there are also skeptics who believe that the priceless tomes could not have survived the devastating Polovtsian raids and fires.

Another version that has the right to exist is that the Library of Yaroslav the Wise became part of the no less legendary Library.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise stood at the origins of the emergence of the first Russian monasteries, including the main one - Kiev-Pechersk. The monastery not only made a huge contribution to the promotion and popularization of Christianity and Orthodoxy, but also played a huge role in enlightenment. After all, chronicles were compiled here and books were translated.

And at this wonderful time, “Russian Truth” by Yaroslav the Wise appeared. This is the first set of laws of Rus', which followers added and expanded.

Historians also highly appreciate the foreign policy of the nobleman, in which he also achieved enormous success. It seems that he was the first of the Russian princes to emphasize diplomacy rather than force of arms.

At that time, dynastic marriages were considered the main way to improve relations with other states. And since Kievan Rus during the reign of the Wise turned into an enlightened and strong state, many rulers of European countries expressed a desire to “marry” with it.

The wife of Yaroslav the Wise was the daughter of King Olaf of Sweden, Ingigerda, who received the name Irina after baptism. From her father she inherited a rich dowry - the city of Aldeigaborg (later Ladoga). The lands adjacent to it were called Ingermanlandia (which translates as the lands of Ingigerda).

The prince's son, Vsevolod, married a Greek princess. Two more offspring are among the German princesses. Son Izyaslav married the sister of the Polish prince Casimir, and Casimir himself married the sister of the Wise, Dobrogneva.

The daughters of a Kyiv nobleman had similar dynastic marriages. Elizabeth was married to the Norwegian king Harald, Anastasia - to the Hungarian ruler Andrew. But the most famous and revered was the daughter Anna Yaroslavna, who became the wife of the French king Henry I. As a result of such a foreign policy, Prince Yaroslav the Wise found himself connected by ties of kinship with many powerful neighbors, near and far.

Founding of cities

Prince Yaroslav the Wise founded Yuryev. This happened in 1030, when he went on a campaign to Chud. A new city, named after its angel, appeared on the shores of Lake Peipsi. Now it is called Tartu and is the second largest Estonian city after Tallinn.

Another city of Yaroslav the Wise is Yaroslavl, although some historians consider the fact of its founding by the prince not indisputable.

There is another Yuriev, which was founded by a prince. This city turned out to be at the same time a fortress that was part of the Poros defensive line. It was erected to protect Kyiv from nomads. In 1240, the Tatar-Mongols destroyed it, leaving only the ruins of the church. The city was revived around it, receiving the name Bila Tserkva. It is still called that today.

Personal life

Many historians agree that Ingigerd’s wife, who became Irina after baptism, had a huge influence on her husband and left a noticeable mark on the history of Rus'. On the lands she inherited from her father, St. Petersburg was built in 1703.

In Kyiv, thanks to Princess Irina, the first convent appeared. It was built at the Church of St. Irene. One of its columns “survived” until the mid-twentieth century. Now only the quiet Irininskaya Street reminds of the existence of the temple.

How the personal lives of Yaroslav the Wise and Ingigerda-Irina turned out is difficult to say today. What is known is that 6 sons and 3 daughters were born in her marriage. The wife shared the views of her husband and converted to his faith, doing a lot to promote it.

The great nobleman, it seems, was not handsome. A strongly protruding nose and the same chin, a sharply defined mouth and large eyes did not add to the attractiveness. He was also lame due to different lengths of his legs. According to one version - due to hip and knee joints damaged in battle, and according to another - due to hereditary Perthes disease.

There is a historical puzzle-riddle about which different historians have their own opinions. Some of them claim that Prince Yaroslav the Wise was married twice.

His first wife was allegedly a Norwegian, Anna. In this marriage even a son, Ilya, was born. But in 1018, he and his mother were captured by the Polish king Boleslav the Brave and taken to Poland forever. This version is allegedly confirmed by the fact that Anna's name appears in some chronicles.

But there are also opponents to this controversial version. They claim that everything is much simpler. Anna is the monastic name of Ingigerda-Irina. Allegedly, at the end of her life, she took monastic vows as a nun, taking this name for herself. In 1439, Archbishop Euthymius canonized Anna. She is considered the heavenly patroness of Novgorod.

It is noteworthy that Prince Yaroslav the Wise himself was canonized as a saint only in the 21st century.

Death

Prince Yaroslav the Wise spent the last years of his life in Vyshgorod. He died on the feast of the Triumph of Orthodoxy in the arms of one of his sons, Vsevolod, having outlived his wife by 4 years and his eldest son, Vladimir, by 2 years.

The date of the prince's death is considered to be February 20, 1054. He was buried in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, in a 6-ton marble sarcophagus. Unfortunately, the remains of the great ruler disappeared. It is known that the sarcophagus was opened three times in the 20th century: in 1936, 1939 and 1964. And they did not always do it skillfully and conscientiously.

After the autopsy in 1939, the remains of Yaroslav the Wise were sent to Leningrad, where scientists from the Institute of Anthropology confirmed for the first time that one of the 3 skeletons (male, female and child) from the opened burial actually belonged to the prince. Using the found skull, anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov was able to reconstruct the appearance of the ruler.

The remains were returned to Kyiv. But in 2009, the tomb was opened again and it was discovered that there were no remains of the oldest of the Rurikovichs. Two female skeletons were found at the site - one from the times of Kievan Rus, the second even older - from the Scythian period. The newspapers Izvestia and Pravda from 1964 were also found in the tomb.

Many historians and researchers are inclined to believe that the remains should be looked for in the USA. Allegedly, they were taken there in 1943, when German troops were retreating.

The history of the Russian state cannot be called boring; it is filled with events that radically changed the face of the state, and great men who laid down their lives for the good of the Fatherland left their mark on it.

Even if we consider the reign of Yaroslav the Wise briefly, it should be attributed precisely to such turning points that are the impetus for the further progress of the country. The very nickname of the Kyiv prince, given to him by the people - the Wise, speaks of the people's attitude towards this statesman, who glorified and elevated Kievan Rus.

Origin of the future ruler

The exact date of birth of the future Grand Duke is unknown; historians are still arguing about it. Some call the year 978, some 979, and some, based on later historical sources, call 988 (the date of the baptism of Rus').

The first written literary monument, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” talks in detail about the marriage of Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko and Rogneda and about the four sons who came from this marriage: Izyaslav, Mstislav, Yaroslav and Vsevolod.

Since Yaroslav was the third son, he could not have been born earlier than 982, but the chronicler deliberately distorted the date of his birth, presenting him as the eldest and most worthy successor of his father.

The same chronicle tells that during his lifetime, Vladimir assigned each of his sons his own patrimony. Yaroslav got Rostov, where he went as a teenager.

To better understand the characteristics of Yaroslav the Wise, you need to remember the chronicle story about the founding of the city of Yaroslavl.

This is interesting! It is believed that while still a teenager, Yaroslav entered into a fight with a bear and, with the help of his retinue, killed it; a new city was founded in this place, named after the young prince.

But the young prince did not rule in Rostov for long; soon the father transported his son to Novgorod. But the prince did not stay there for long. And in 1014 he refused to pay tribute to Kyiv, and this aroused the just anger of his father. Only a quick death prevented Vladimir from speaking out against his rebellious son.

First steps in politics

The historical portrait of Yaroslav the Wise is extremely interesting and gives a lot for studying the history of Russia. He became the Grand Duke of Kyiv as a result of civil strife that tore the country apart and hindered its development.

His brother Svyatopolk, nicknamed the Accursed for the murder of Boris and Gleb, was defeated and expelled from Rus' in 1019. After this, the reign of Yaroslav the Wise began, which was very useful not only for increasing the international authority of Rus', but also for establishing order within the state.

But, I must say honestly, the civil strife did not end there. In 1021, a victory was won over another brother, Bryachislav, who also claimed power over the “mother of Russian cities.”

And after that, another rival, Mieczyslaw of Polotsk, appeared and captured Chernigov. It was difficult to fight him, and the brothers hastened to resolve the matter peacefully: they divided power over the country.

This is interesting! This dual power lasted until 1935, when Mieczysław died in Bose. From that time on, Yaroslav the Wise became the sole supreme ruler of Rus'.

Policy directions

The years of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) can be noted as years aimed at the development of education and culture.

Achievements:

He established a new order of succession to the throne, now the eldest of the sons - descendants of Rurik - received the throne.
The ruler divided all Russian lands into five equal inheritances and during his lifetime assigned each son his own inheritance.
Under him, Kyiv became one of the greatest cities, similar to Constantinople, he increased the international authority of Rus' by concluding dynastic marriages of his daughters with the rulers of the largest European powers.
In 1024, after peace was concluded between Yaroslav and Mstislav, internecine wars practically ceased in Rus', which significantly strengthened its economy.
The prince’s attitude towards religion was completely special. Under him, a large number of churches and cathedrals were built, and it was he who, without the consent of the Patriarch of Constantinople, appointed Hilarion Metropolitan of the Russian Church.
Himself a big supporter of education, he tried to make even ordinary people want to embrace it. Under him, schools were actively built, books were translated into Old Church Slavonic. In his “Testament,” written for his sons, he called books “rivers that feed the Universe.” His handwritten “Testament” was included in the treasury of ancient Russian literature.

This is interesting! History has preserved most of the information about his daughter Anna Yaroslavna, who became the queen of France and taught her sovereign husband to read and write.

If we talk about what actions of Yaroslav strengthened the international authority of the Russian state, then we cannot help but recall the victorious military actions against external enemies.

In 1036, he spoke out against the Pechenegs, who constantly violated the borders of the state and completely burned out villages, and led the people away into captivity. In honor of this fateful victory for the country, the St. Sophia Cathedral was erected in Kyiv, which is still an amazing monument of medieval architecture.

Yaroslav the Wise returned to the state the original Russian cities in the fight against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Przemysl, Belz, Cherven and others, conquered by his brother Svyatopolk the Accursed in the struggle for the Kiev throne.

The meaning of "Russian Truth"

The historical portrait of Yaroslav the Wise will be incomplete if nothing is said about him as a legislator. Until the 11th century, legal proceedings in Kievan Rus were carried out according to ancient traditions and customs of the pre-Christian period, and only after the publication of a legislative collection did this process begin to be based on testimony and inferences.

For example, the custom of blood feud, which existed everywhere, lost its meaning and began to be limited only to a narrow circle of immediate relatives. The same set of laws was used to resolve property disputes between free people.

The peculiarities of this legislative collection also lie in the fact that it establishes penalties for physical injury or death.

Moreover, for the death of a free person, a warrior or a serf, and a smerde, different fines were imposed. That is, the main feature in the reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise was the strengthening of supreme power and the protection of feudal property.

The meaning of government

Summing up the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the following actions should be noted:

Builds powerful defensive fortifications of the external border of the state.
He builds new cities, and also actively expands the boundaries of the capital city (Kyiv increases seven times compared to what it was under Vladimir).
Following Vladimir the Baptist, he continues to promote Christianity.
Carries out administrative, legal and judicial reforms.
Actively uses diplomacy as the first and surest way to solve foreign policy problems.
Constantly engaged in the comprehensive development of culture (under him, the first Russian library was created at the St. Sophia Cathedral, the first chronicle was written).

If you have not yet found the answer to the question: exactly what actions of Yaroslav, Prince of Kyiv, strengthened the international authority of Rus', then know that not only many European monarchs, but also the emperor of Byzantium itself considered it an honor to become related to him. Yaroslav did not consider it shameful to interfere in the internal affairs of other powers, sacredly observing the interests of only Rus' alone.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise(years of life 978-1054; reign: in Rostov (987-1010), in Novgorod (1010-1034), Grand Duke of Kiev (1016-1018, 1019-1054), son of the baptist of Rus', Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (from the Rurik family ) and the Polotsk princess Rogneda Rogvolodovna, in baptism he received the name George (or Yuri). This is one of the most famous ancient Russian princes.

In 987, being nine years old, he was sent by his father to reign in the city of Rostov. In 1010 he becomes the Prince of Novgorod. It is believed that it was at the end of his reign in the city of Rostov in 1010 that he founded Yaroslavl.

There is little information about this period of the prince’s life and it is legendary. It is known that as the prince of Novgorod, Yaroslav wanted to break all dependence on Kyiv and in 1014 refused to pay his father an annual tribute of 2,000 hryvnia, as all Novgorod mayors did. The Novgorodians, who were burdened by dependence on Southern Rus', supported the prince. This episode is reflected in the chronicles.

Angry with his son, Vladimir prepared to personally go against him, but soon fell ill and died. Power in Kyiv passed to the eldest in the family, Svyatopolk, who, fearing Boris, beloved by the people of Kiev and wanting to protect himself from the claims of other brothers to the grand-ducal throne, killed three of them - Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav. The same danger threatened Yaroslav.

In a vicious battle, Yaroslav defeated Svyatopolk near the city of Lyubech, entered Kyiv and occupied the grand-ducal throne (1016). The struggle between the brothers continued with varying success, and only in 1019, after the death of Svyatopolk, was Yaroslav able to establish himself on the Kiev throne.

In 1036, chronicles speak of the siege of Kyiv by the Pechenegs, in the absence of Yaroslav, who had gone to Novgorod. Having received news of this, Yaroslav hastened to help and defeated the Pechenegs under the very walls of Kyiv. After this defeat, Pecheneg attacks on Rus' ceased. In 1030, Yaroslav went to Chud and established his power on the shores of Lake Peipsi; he founded a city here and named it Yuryev, in honor of his angel (the Christian name of Prince Yuri). Now this is the city of Dorpat.

Having won military victories, Yaroslav began work that was grandiose for that time. At the site of his victory over the Pechenegs, he founded a new architectural ensemble, the center of which was the St. Sophia Cathedral. He built the Kiev Church of St. Sophia in imitation of the Constantinople Church, magnificently decorating it with frescoes and mosaics.

Yaroslav spared no expense on the church splendor, inviting Greek craftsmen for this. He decorated Kyiv with many buildings, built new stone walls, installing the famous Golden Gate in them (in imitation of the same ones in Constantinople), and above them - the Church of the Annunciation.

In an effort to eliminate the dependence of the Russian Orthodox Church on Byzantium, he took action, thanks to which in 1054 the first metropolitan not from the Greeks, but from the Russians, Hilarion, became the head of the church.

In order to instill in the people the principles of the Christian faith, Yaroslav ordered the translation of handwritten books from Greek into Slavic. Yaroslav loved books very much and read them often. He increased the number of books in Rus' and gradually introduced them into use. From that time on, book wisdom was firmly established among Russians. To spread literacy, Yaroslav ordered the clergy to teach children. In Novgorod he set up a school for 300 boys.

Under Yaroslav the Wise, the first Russian monasteries appeared, among them Kiev-Pechersk, who played a large role in the development of Russian books and chronicles. Yaroslav remained the most famous to posterity as a legislator: the code of laws “Russian Truth” is attributed to him.

In foreign policy the prince relied more on diplomacy than on weapons. At that time, the main way for this was dynastic marriages. And the leaders of European states were not averse to becoming related to the ruler of Kievan Rus. Yaroslav himself married Ingigerda (in Orthodoxy - Irina), the daughter of the Norwegian king Olaf.

Son Vsevolod was married to a Greek princess, two more sons were married to German princesses, and Polish Prince Casimir was married to Prince Dobrognev’s sister; and Yaroslav’s son Izyaslav married Casimir’s sister. The Norwegian king Harald was married to Yaroslav's daughter Elizabeth, the Hungarian king Andrei married his daughter Anastasia, the French king Henry I married his third daughter, Anna Yaroslavna. So the Kiev prince was the father, grandfather and uncle of many rulers of Europe.

Appearance of Yaroslav the Wise

The chronicle did not leave us a detailed description of the appearance of Yaroslav the Wise. Having opened the prince’s tomb, a group of Russian anthropologists led by M. Gerasimov recreated his appearance.

Here, in the picture, you can see him. It is clear that this reconstruction gives a very rough idea of the appearance of Yaroslav the Wise.

Character of Yaroslav the Wise

Describing the character of Yaroslav the Wise, the chronicler speaks of prudence, intelligence, zeal in the Orthodox faith, courage, and compassion for the poor. The prince's character was strict and his life modest. In this he differed from his father, who loved merry feasts.

At the same time, the character of Yaroslav the Wise was far from simple. A controversial figure: a brutal dictator and a wise book lover; a crafty politician and an inspired builder; the creator of the first set of Russian laws - “Russian Truth” and a man who does not know gratitude, who could punish with an iron hand his faithful associates, who did a lot for the principality and for him personally, and even his closest relatives.

And it is difficult to imagine calmness and Russian good nature in the character of Yaroslav the Wise. After all, his mother was a Polovtsian, and he himself is half Polovtsian. The hot and furious blood of the inhabitants of the Polovtsian steppes flowed in his veins.

What cities were founded by Yaroslav the Wise

In order to strengthen his power, Yaroslav the Wise founded cities in different parts of Kievan Rus. They often bore the name of the prince. Among these cities:

. The fact that the prince founded this city is not indisputable.

Yuryev (now Tartu) was founded in 1030 during the military campaign of the squad of Yaroslav the Wise against the Estonians, which ended with the annexation of part of their lands to the Old Russian state. On these lands the prince founded a city, to which he gave the name Yuryev (this is the Christian name of the prince, given to him at baptism). Now Tartu is the second most populous city in Estonia after Tallinn.

Yaroslav was founded in 1031. The city of that time was called the “Princely City”. The Battle of Yaroslavl took place near Yaroslav in 1245. Since the 14th century it has been part of Poland. Now it is included in Poland in the Podkarpackie Voivodeship, Yaroslavsky District. Stands on the San River.

Another Yuryev was founded by Yaroslav the Wise in 1032. It was one of the fortified cities included in the Poros defensive line, built to defend against invasions of the steppe nomads of the Kyiv principality. It was destroyed in 1240, during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, all that remained of the city were the ruins of a church, around which the city was reborn. now this White church– a city of regional subordination in the Kyiv region of Ukraine.

Some historians associate foundation of Novgorod-Seversky with the conquest of Yaroslav the Wise in 1044. However, according to archaeologists, the first fortified settlement on the site of the city appeared at the end of the 10th century, during the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. Now Novgorod-Seversky is a city in the Chernigov region of Ukraine, the administrative center of the Novgorod-Seversky district.

With his deeds, this prince earned his descendants nickname Wise. The reign of Yaroslav the Wise was the longest - 37 years.

He died in 1054 and was buried in a marble coffin that has survived to this day in the St. Sophia Cathedral.

Veneration in Christianity

For the first time, the Holy Prince was mentioned by Adam of Bremen, who in the “Acts of the High Priests of the Hamburg Church,” dating back to 1075, calls the Grand Duke Yaroslav Vladimirovich a saint.

However, formally Yaroslav the Wise was not one of the saints of the Russian Orthodox Church. In connection with the 950th anniversary of his death on March 9, 2004, he was included in the calendar of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the MP, and on December 8, 2005, with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II, the day of February 20 (March 5) was included in the calendar as the day of remembrance of the blessed prince Yaroslav the Wise.

Interesting facts about Yaroslav the Wise

The sarcophagus of Yaroslav the Wise was opened three times in the 20th century: in 1936, 1939 and 1964.

In 1936, they found a bunch of mixed bones in the sarcophagus and determined that there were two skeletons: a man, a woman and several bones of a child.

The ashes themselves were only recovered in 1939. Then the remains were sent to Leningrad, where, with a high degree of probability, scientists from the Institute of Anthropology first established that one of the three skeletons found in the burial belongs to Yaroslav the Wise. At the same time, using the found skull, the great Soviet archaeologist and anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov reconstructed the supposed appearance of Yaroslav the Wise.

In 2009, the tomb in the St. Sophia Cathedral was opened again, and the remains were sent for examination. The decision to open the sarcophagus was made by a high-ranking commission consisting of scientists and representatives of the Ukrainian government. It’s no joke, the remains of Yaroslav are the oldest surviving remains of the Rurik family. The sarcophagus was opened to determine the appearance, exact age, illnesses of the prince, and using DNA to establish whether the Rurik family belonged to the Scandinavians or Slavs. But it turned out that the prince’s remains were not there. During the autopsy, Soviet newspapers Pravda and Izvestia, dated 1964, were discovered. In March 2011, the results of a genetic examination were published, according to which the tomb contains not male, but only female remains. Interestingly, these female remains belong to two women, one of them lived during the era of Kievan Rus, and the other a thousand years earlier, that is, during the time of Scythian settlements. The remains of the Kyiv era belong to a woman who did a lot of hard physical labor during her life, that is, she was clearly not of a princely family. According to historians, the remains of the Grand Duke should also be looked for in the USA.

The “Library of Yaroslav the Wise” has become legendary, which is often compared to the “Library of Ivan the Terrible”.

In 2008, Yaroslav the Wise took first place in the television project “Great Ukrainians”.

There is an opinion among historians that the wife of Prince Ingigerd was the real ruler of Rus', who actively influenced political processes.

As a dowry, Ingigerda received the city of Aldeigyuborg (Old Ladoga) and a fairly large territory around Lake Ladoga, named Ingermanlandia (Ingigerda's land) in her honor. St. Petersburg was founded on the territory of Ingria in 1703.

In Kyiv, on the initiative of Ingigerda, the first convent was built at the Church of St. Irina (after baptism, Ingigerda took the name Irina). Until the mid-twentieth century, one of the columns of the cathedral of this monastery stood tall. Now only the name of the quiet Irininskaya street in the center of Kyiv reminds of the temple.

At the end of her life, Ingigerda became a nun, taking the name of nun Anna. Her remains are located in Novgorod.

In 1439, Archbishop Euthymius canonized Ingigerda-Irina-Anna and her son Vladimir. She became the heavenly patroness of Novgorod. This also testifies to the enormous moral, at least, significance that this woman had. After all, her husband Yaroslav the Wise was officially canonized only in the 21st century.

Introduction

1.1.Yaroslav the Wise and Ingigerda

Section 2. General characteristics of the internal policy of Yaroslav the Wise

2.1. "Russian Truth"

Section 3. Culture of Kievan Rus under Yaroslav the Wise

Bibliography

Add-ons

Introduction.

(Brief biography of Yaroslav the Wise)

Yaroslav the Wise (c. 978-02/02/1054) - an outstanding statesman and commander of Kievan Rus, Grand Duke of Kiev (1019-1054). Yaroslav was the son of Vladimir the Great and the Polish princess Rogneda. While still alive, his father transferred him from Rostov to reign in Novgorod, which displeased Svyatopolk. Chroniclers drew attention to him in 1014, when Yaroslav refused to pay Kyiv. (annual tribute - 2,000 hryvnia, as all Novgorod mayors did before). The chronicler explains this behavior of Yaroslav by the fact that he was dissatisfied with his father, who showed preference to the younger Boris, who was born from the “Greek” Anna. The angry Vladimir decided to personally oppose his disobedient son and roughly punish him. Yaroslav also decided to start a war against his father and hired a large detachment of Varangians. The strife that was about to break out between son and father was prevented only by the death of the latter. After the death of Vladimir, Svyatopolk began a civil strife with his brothers, which lasted for four whole years. Having married the daughter of the Polish king Boleslav the Brave and hoping for his support, he declared himself the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Wanting to retain autocracy and, most of all, fearing Boris (the people of Kiev especially loved him), Svyatopolk killed his three brothers - Boris of Rostov, Gleb of Murom and Svyatoslav Drevlyansky. For the brothers Boris and Gleb, popular rumor created a cult of innocent martyrs who became victims of the internecine struggle of ambitious princes, and they were later canonized. The image of these martyrs expresses ideas about the spiritual perfection of the people and their eternal moral fortitude, which was manifested many times in the coming severe trials. Yaroslav, of course, understood that the power-hungry Svyatopolk would do everything to send him after his brothers. Yaroslav's position was further complicated by the fact that he was in a quarrel with the Novgorodians. They were dissatisfied with how defiantly the Varangian squad hired by the prince behaved in the city. Clashes between townspeople and Varangians often led to bloodshed. And Yaroslav and his wife - the Norwegian princess Ingigerda (in baptism - Irina), daughter of the Norwegian king Olaf I Tyrgvason - supported not their subjects, but the Varangian newcomers. Soon, however, Yaroslav changed tactics. Considering the war with Svyatopolk inevitable, he began to seek reconciliation with the Novgorodians. The latter willingly met Yaroslav halfway - they were ready to march with him against Svyatopolk, because most of all they were afraid of becoming completely dependent on Kyiv. Having gathered 40,000 Novgorodians and several thousand Varangian mercenaries, Yaroslav opposed Svyatopolk, who managed to call the Pechenegs to his aid. A fierce struggle took place near the city of Lyubech. Svyatopolk was defeated and fled to Poland to his father-in-law. And Yaroslav, having generously thanked the Novgorodians, entered Kyiv in 1016 and occupied the grand-ducal table. But the fight didn't end there. Svyatopolk returned to Rus' with the Polish regiments, which were led by King Boleslav the Brave himself. Among the interventionists there were also squads of Germans, Hungarians and Pechenegs. Yaroslav lost the second battle on the banks of the Bug. He returned to Novgorod and from there tried to escape to Norway. Svyatopolk again occupied Kyiv, and the Novgorodians, led by mayor Konstantin Dobrynich, again rebelled. They destroyed the ships prepared for Yaroslav's escape and collected money to hire a new Varangian detachment, imposing a tax on the free population - 4 kunas per husband, 10 hryvnias per elders and 18 hryvnias per boyar. Meanwhile, Svyatopolk expelled Boleslav the Brave from Kyiv, which immediately deprived him of real power - without Polish support he could no longer hold Kyiv in his hands and therefore was forced to seek help from the Pechenegs. Supported by the Novgorodians, Yaroslav opposed Svyatopolk for the third time and in 1019 defeated him and his allies, the Pechenegs, on the Alta River. Svyatopolk fled again to Poland, but died on the way. Only after this did Yaroslav firmly establish himself in Kyiv. Svyatopolk was a fratricide. If the chroniclers called Yaroslav the Wise and his brother Mstislav the Red, then they branded Svyatopolk the Damned. This is how they described his death: “And while fleeing, a demon attacked him, and his joints weakened, he could not sit on a horse, and they carried him on a stretcher... and he ran to a deserted place between Poland and the Czech Republic, and there he dishonorably ended his life The righteous judgment befell him, the unrighteous, and after death he suffered the damned torment... His grave stands in this deserted place to this day, and a cruel stench emanates from it...” A few years after the strife with Svyatopolk, Yaroslav was forced to wage a more difficult war with his younger brother, Mstislav of Tmutarakan (modern Krasnodar region). However, Mstislav was not as bloodthirsty as Svyatopolk. He voluntarily recognized Yaroslav's seniority and made peace with him. According to the peace treaty, Rus' was divided into two parts: the region on the eastern side of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav, and the entire territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav. In 1035 Mstislav died, and again Yaroslav became the great sovereign prince of Kievan Rus. The time of Yaroslav was the heyday of Kievan Rus, which became one of the strongest states in Europe, quickly catching up with advanced countries in socio-political and cultural terms. The most powerful statesmen in Europe sought an alliance with Russia in the first half of the 11th century. The characteristics of Yaroslav as a person are interesting. According to the chronicle, “he was lame, but he had a kind mind and was brave in the army.” The people called him Wise. His commitment to reading books is noted. Under him, many books were copied; not only church works were translated from Greek into Russian. Thus, thanks to the translation in Rus', the Greek historical work “The Chronicle of George Amartol” became known. Scientists suggest that at that time schools were organized to teach young men basic literacy, and perhaps there was a wider familiarization of people with knowledge. The prominent place of Yaroslav the Wise in the history of Rus' is usually associated not so much with his successful military campaigns and dynastic ties with the West, but with his versatile activities on the internal structure of the state. He did a lot to spread Christianity - he built new cities (Yuryev, Yaroslavl) and new churches (including the outstanding cathedrals of Sophia in Kiev and Novgorod), set about training Russian clergy, translating church books from Greek into Slavic. Under him, Anthony Lyubechanin founded the later famous Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. During his reign, the city of Kyiv was surrounded by a stone wall with a Golden Gate and decorated with many new buildings. Yaroslav Vladimirovich died in Vyshgorod (near Kiev) at the beginning of 1054. He was buried in St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Section 1. General characteristics of the foreign policy of Yaroslav the Wise

The period of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise was marked by a new breakthrough in the history of the Kyiv state. During the reign of Yaroslav, Rus' “entered the world stage” as one of the most powerful states of this period. In the field of international affairs, Yaroslav preferred diplomacy to war. Thus, he is famous for his dynastic marriages with many rulers of Europe. This situation contributed to raising the international authority of Rus', and also guaranteed military assistance in case of instability; among other things, it also contributed to the acquisition of relative security on the part of those countries with which Rus' had “family” ties. Rus' maintained close relations with Byzantium, Germany, Hungary, France and the Scandinavian countries. Dynastic marriages were presented as follows: Yaroslav himself was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf, Ingigerda, and subsequently to Anna, the daughter of the Byzantine emperor. Yaroslav's daughter Elizabeth married the Norwegian king Harald the Harsh. The second daughter is Anna, for the French king Henry II. The third daughter, Anastasia, was the wife of the Hungarian King Andrew the First. However, the fact that Yaroslav was an excellent diplomat did not mean that he did not conduct military affairs at all. So, in 1030-1031. The armies of Yaroslav and Mstislav recaptured the Cherven cities, which in 1018 captured by the Polish king Boleslaw the First the Brave. Yaroslav entered into an alliance with the Polish king Casimir the First, marrying his sister Dobroniga to him, and marrying his eldest son Izyaslav to Casimir's sister. In 1031 On the lands conquered from Poland on the Syan River, he founded the city of Yaroslav, which later became an outpost of the Kyiv state in the West. Yaroslav also carried out a number of campaigns against the Estonians (1030) and the Yatvingians (1038). Under him, to protect the borders from attacks by nomads, a new defensive line was built along the Sula, Stugna, Ros and Trubezh rivers. In 1037 Russian troops defeated the Pechenegs near Kyiv, and it was in honor of this victory that the St. Sophia Cathedral was founded (in 1037). In 1043, the Grand Duke organized a campaign under the command of his son Vladimir and governor Vashata against Byzantium. To summarize, we can say that the foreign policy activities of Yaroslav the Wise were very successful and contributed to raising the international status of Kievan Rus.

1.1. Yaroslav the Wise and Ingigerda.

The marriage of Yaroslav the Wise and Ingigerd, the daughter of the Swedish king Olav Eiriksson (who reigned from 995 to 1022) and, probably, the Vendian Astrid, is spoken of in a significant number of Old Scandinavian sources of the late XII - first third of the XIII century: in the “History of the Ancient Norwegian Kings” by the monk , in the “Review of the Sagas of the Norwegian Kings”, in the “Legendary Saga of Saint Olaf”, in “Rotten Skin”, in the “Separate Saga of Saint Olaf” and in “The Earthly Circle” by Snorri Sturluson, in the “Saga of the Knüttlings, in Icelandic annals, as well as in the chronicle of the Bremen canon Adam of Bremen. From source to source, this motive acquires more details. If the monk Theodric reports only that Yaritslav “married Ingigerta, to whom ... [Olav] himself wooed, but could not marry,” without disclosing the reasons why the marriage did not take place, then the author of the “Review” already quite succinctly formulates that a version that will later be expounded at length by Snorri Sturluson: Ingigerd “was previously promised” to Olav Haraldsson, but “her father broke those promises due to anger.” Contrary to the previously concluded agreement, Olav of Sweden (Shetkonung) gave Ingigerd “to Yaritslav, King of Austrweg.” The most complete story of the marriage of Yaroslav and Ingigerd is recounted by Snorri Sturluson. Yaroslav's matchmaking, according to the saga, began in the summer or autumn of 1018. The following spring, ambassadors from King Jaritsleiv arrived in Sweden with the goal of verifying the promise that King Olav had made the previous summer: to give Ingigerd, his daughter, to King Jaritsleiv. King Olav started a conversation with Ingigerd and said that it was his desire that she marry King Yaritsleif. She replies: “If I marry King Yaritsleiv, then I want Aldeigyuborg (Ladoga) and the earlship that relates to it as a wedding gift.” The ambassadors agreed to this on behalf of their king. Then Ingigerd said: “If I go east to Gardariki, then I want to choose in Sweden the person who, I think, is most suitable to go with me. I also want to make it a condition that he there in the east has no lower title and no less rights and honor than he has here.” The king agreed to this, as did the ambassadors. The king swore this on his faith, and so did the ambassadors. Ingigerd chose her relative, Earl Rögnvald Ulvsson, as her guide. They all went east together in the summer to Gardariki. Then Ingigerd married King Yaritsleiv. Princess Ingigerd gave Earl Rögnvald Aldeigjuborg and the earlship that belonged to him; Rognvald was earl there for a long time, and he was a famous person. The marriage of Yaroslav and Ingigerd was concluded in 1019: this date is called by the Icelandic annals (“1019. King Olav the Holy married Astrid, the daughter of King Olav of Sweden, and King Yaritsleif in Holmgard married Ingigerd”), it is also restored according to the chronology of the “Circle” earthly." Regarding Yaroslav's matchmaking with the Swedish princess Ingigerd, it was suggested in the scientific literature that one of the reasons that prompted him to enter into an alliance with Olav of Sweden was a military campaign along the Eastern Route, carried out by Earl Svein Hakonarson in 1015. Yaroslav allegedly agreed to this marriage to prevent possible future aggressive actions, which, as before (the attack on Ladoga by Jarl Eirik Hakonarson in 997), were undertaken, if not by Olav himself, then by his friends and guests who were patronized by him. Noting the unstable situation in the southern Ladoga region at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries, which negatively affected both the state of international trade and the security of Novgorod, the researchers also characterized the marriage between Yaroslav the Wise and Ingigerd as an attempt to eliminate instability. The Ladoga jarlship as a result turned into a kind of buffer zone between Scandinavia and Russia: having become the possession of the Swede Ingigerd, this area was protected from attacks by the Swedes, and, having been transferred to Jarl Rognvald, a friend of Olav of Norway, from attacks by the Norwegians. It seems to me that the reason here is much deeper. The period from 1018 to the mid-1020s was generally marked by the strengthening of Russian-Swedish, as well as Russian-Danish, ties, caused by Yaroslav's desire to create an anti-Polish coalition in the process of fighting for the Kiev table. It is as a consequence of this policy that it is worth considering Yaroslav’s matchmaking with the daughter of Olav of Sweden and his subsequent marriage to her. The transfer of Ladoga to a noble Scandinavian at the beginning of the 11th century is not recorded by any other sources except Snorri Sturluson’s “Saga of Saint Olaf” (in all its variants) and “The Strand of Eymund”. Nevertheless, most researchers recognize the authenticity of the presence of a Scandinavian ruler in Ladoga at that time. Probably the reason for such unanimity lies in the fact that “the information from the sagas about Ladoga agrees with our chronicle in that this city and its adjacent territory do not have their own prince, in contrast to Novgorod, Polotsk and others.” In ancient Russian sources there is very little information about the wife of Yaroslav Vladimirovich. We meet her name in the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion (1040s), where the future metropolitan addresses the late Prince Vladimir with the words: “See also your faithful daughter-in-law Erina (i.e. Irina. - T.D.)" [Cit. from: Moldovan 1984: 98]. Ingigerd is sometimes identified with Anna, since, according to the late Novgorod tradition, this was the name of Yaroslav's wife and Vladimir's mother. But this opinion is erroneous (for more details, see: [Nazarenko 1993 b: 193-196]). Confirmation of the fact that Yaroslav's wife Ingigerd received the name Irina in Rus' is the chronicle message of 1037 about the founding of the monasteries of St. by Yaroslav the Wise. George and St. Irina, for, as you know, Yaroslav himself was called George in baptism, and a Scandinavian princess could become Irina in Orthodox baptism. The only thing that is still known about Ingigerd is the date of her death. In the “Tale of Bygone Years” under the year 1050/1051 it is reported: “The wife of Yaroslavl, the princess, passed away.” Children of Yaroslav the Wise and Ingigerd. As Snorri says, "their sons were Valdamar, Vissivald, Holti the Bold." Valdamar Jaritsleivsson and Vissivald Jaritsleivsson can be identified with the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - Vladimir (1020-1052, Prince of Novgorod 1036 - Oct. 4, 1052) and Vsevolod (1030-1093, Grand Duke of Kiev in 1077, 107 8-1093 gg.). However, information about King Valdamar in the sagas is contradictory: on the one hand, he is the son of Yaritsleif, i.e. Vladimir Yaroslavich, but on the other hand, he is the father of Harald/Mstislav, i.e. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (b. 1053, Grand Duke of Kiev in 1113-1125). Most of the sagas consider Vladimir Monomakh the son of Yaroslav the Wise. The “silent” mention in the sagas of the name of Holti the Bold, son of Yaritsleiv, leads to a plurality of interpretations among historians: they saw Ilya, Izyaslav, and Svyatoslav in him; E.A. Rydzevskaya argued that Holti, “judging by some data, is the same Vsevolod.” Indeed, in the edition of the “Saga of Olav Tryggvason” by the monk Odd about King Valdamar (Vladimir Svyatoslavich) it is said that “this Valdamar was the father of Jaritsleif, father of Holti, father of Valdamar, father of Harald, father of Ingibjorg, mother of Valdamar, king of the Danes.” Besides the fact that in this news of one of the earliest sagas the Russian name of Holti, the son of Yaritsleiv, is revealed, for it can only be Vsevolod Yaroslavich, the father of Vladimir Monomakh, only here Vladimir Yaroslavich and Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh did not merge into one person, as in all the others sagas In the above diagram, information from various sagas is contaminated, and therefore it contains Vissivald (Vsevolod), and Holti (Vsevolod), and Valdamar, the son of Yaritsleiv (Vladimir Yaroslavich), and Valdamar, his grandson (Vladimir Vsevolodovich).

Section 2. General characteristics of the domestic policy of Yaroslav the Wise.

The period of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise was the period of greatest prosperity of Kievan Rus. It can be said that Yaroslav paid great attention to organizing the internal life of the country. Under him, a set of laws was compiled called “Yaroslav’s Truth,” which constitutes the most ancient part of the “Russian Truth.” The publication of this document contributed to the organization of the internal life of the country. During the reign of Yaroslav, Christianity was finally established in the Kiev state. In 1039 The Kiev Metropolis was founded, which was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1051 Yaroslav, wishing to free himself from the “tutelage” of Byzantium in church affairs, contrary to the canon, at a gathering of Russian bishops, elected the Kyiv church leader Hilarion as metropolitan. Under Yaroslav, the first monasteries were founded in Kievan Rus - St. Irene, St. Yuri, and the Kiev Pechersky Monastery, which became large church and socio-cultural centers. Yaroslav also cared about the development of education in the state. By his order, a school and library were created at the St. Sophia Cathedral. Before his death, he tried to resolve another problem that was troubling him, and to improve the apparatus for the transfer of power, in order to avoid bloody civil strife in the future. But he died before he could solve this problem. In general, we can say that the internal policy of Yaroslav the Wise was successful and aimed at the development of the state

2.1. "Russian Truth".

General characteristics of “Russian Truth”. Among other things, Yaroslav the Wise is also famous for publishing his “Russian Truth”. “Russian Truth” is a collection of norms of ancient law, compiled mainly in the 11th – 12th centuries. The question of its origin, as well as the time of compilation of the earliest part of “Russian Truth”, is controversial. Some historians even date it back to the 7th century. However, most researchers associate the oldest part of “Russian Truth” with the name of Yaroslav the Wise, and the place of its publication is called Novgorod. The initial text of this document has not reached us. Over the course of history, the text of “Russian Pravda” was repeatedly changed and supplemented. So, for example, it is known that the sons of Yaroslav (in the second half of the 11th century), supplemented and changed the text of the “Russian Truth”, calling it “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs”. To date, 106 lists of “Russian Truth” are known, compiled in the 13th – 17th centuries. It is customary to divide Russian Pravda into three editions - Brief, Expanded, and Abridged, reflecting certain stages of the development of social relations in the Kiev state. Basic provisions of Russian Truth. Crime and punishment according to Russian Truth. The modern science of criminal law understands the term “crime” as a socially dangerous act provided for by criminal law, committed guilty (that is, with intent or through negligence) by a person of sane who has reached the age of criminal responsibility. But what was meant by this term in the distant period of the creation of Russian Pravda? With the introduction of Christianity in Rus', under the influence of new morality, pagan concepts of crime and punishment were replaced. In the sphere of criminal law of Ancient Rus', the private nature of ancient Christian-Byzantine legal norms based on Roman private law is manifested. This replacement is expressed most clearly in the princely statutes and in the Russian Pravda, where any crime was defined not as a violation of the law or princely will, but as an “offense,” i.e. causing material, physical or moral harm to any person or group of persons. For this offense, the perpetrator had to pay some compensation. Thus, a criminal offense was not distinguished in law from a civil offense. Types of crimes and corresponding punishments according to “Russian Truth”: 1. Blood feud. The replacement of pagan concepts of crime and punishment with new concepts is especially clearly expressed in the legislation defining the punishment for murder and in the gradual transformation of the institution of blood feud. For example, according to the agreement with the Greeks in 911, anyone could kill a murderer at the scene of a crime with impunity. The 945 treaty gives the right of life to the murderer to the relatives of the murdered person, regardless of the degree of relationship. "Russian Truth", in turn, limits the circle of avengers to two degrees of the closest relatives of the murdered person (father, son, brothers, nephews). And finally, “Pravda Yaroslavichy” completely excludes blood feud from its composition, prohibiting anyone from killing the murderer, allowing the relatives of the murdered person to enjoy a certain monetary compensation from the murderer. Thus, the state's right to the person and property of the criminal is expanded. There is a lot of controversy in the literature about the legal basis of blood feud. Was it pre-trial or post-trial reprisal? Russian Pravda does not give a direct answer to this question. Historically, blood feud developed as an obligation of the victim’s family to deal with the criminal. But the process of feudalization of the Old Russian state, the increasing role of the prince and the princely court made significant changes in the application of the custom of blood feud. For some time, the princely court coexisted with the communal court, but gradually, thanks to the strengthening of feudal relations, the princely court occupied a leading position, pushing the communal court into the background. Thus, it becomes possible for the prince to intervene in the custom of blood feud; the murderer has the opportunity to redeem himself through the mediation of the prince (although, without a doubt, he could have reached an agreement with the relatives of the murdered man before). At this time, there was a special category of people cut off from their community (merchants, outcasts), as well as numerous princely warriors and servants (gridni, yabetniks, swordsmen, firemen, etc.), who needed special princely protection, because Having broken with the community for various reasons, they lost a protector in its person. Now the prince was to become their new protector, so they were interested in strengthening princely power. In turn, restraining the lynching of the community, the prince introduced his own measure of punishment - viru, i.e. a fine of 40 hryvnia, paid for murder to the princely treasury. Russkaya Pravda is also aware of the institution of wild or general violence (in the amount of 80 hryvnia), imposed for the murder of princely servants. For example, a fine of 80 hryvnia is mentioned for the murder of a fireman, a princely thiun or a groom. Undoubtedly, the ancient custom of blood feud did not suit either the prince, who was interested in weakening the communal courts that interfered with the centralization of power, or the Christian church with its new standards of morality and ethics, but, being very widespread, it could not be eliminated immediately. Therefore, it can be assumed that the prince gives his sanction for blood feud, enshrining this provision in Article 1 of Yaroslav’s Truth. Thus, blood feud in Russian Pravda has a pronounced transitional character from direct reprisal of the clan to punishment imposed and executed by the state. But it should be noted that blood feud applies only in the case of the murder of a free person by a free person. Only after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, “gathering again, his sons Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod and their husbands Kosnyachko, Pereneg, Nikifor canceled the blood feud for the murder, and decided to redeem themselves with money.” 2. Beatings and insults. Revenge in Russian Pravda is mentioned not only in articles talking about murder. So, for example, in the case of beating a person to the point of blood and bruises, the victim is given an alternative: either to take revenge or to take 3 hryvnia from the offender for the insult. Moreover, in this case, a witness is not even required. “If there is no sign on it, then let the sight come; if he can’t, then that’s the end of it.” Thus, in this article we first encounter the concept of vidocq, i.e. a direct witness - an eyewitness to what is happening. In addition to video, Russkaya Pravda knows one more type of witness - hearsay, i.e. a person who can vouch for the innocence of the accused and protect his good name. Unlike previous customs, attention is paid here not to the nature of the damage inflicted, but to the instruments used to inflict the beatings: batog, pole, palm, bowl, horn, the blunt side of a sharp weapon. Such a list suggests that the law does not take into account the degree of danger to the health of the victim of the object with which the beating is inflicted. What is important is not the physical injury caused, but the insult directly caused by the blow. In this case, the victim has the right to immediate revenge. If the offended person did not immediately take revenge on the offender for one reason or another (did not catch up), then the latter is subject to a monetary penalty in the amount of 12 hryvnia. Article 4 (strike with a sword that is not drawn from its sheath) and article 8 (pulling out the beard and mustache) also speak about insult. Both of these articles provide for a punishment of 12 hryvnia for a crime. Verse 9 reads: “If someone draws his sword and does not strike, he will put down the hryvnia.” The crime described in this article can be characterized as an attempt, or as an unfinished crime (threat, insult). 3.Mutilation. The next series of articles (Articles 5, 6 and 7) are devoted to self-harm. There are three main types of self-harm: injury to the hand, foot and finger. In ancient Russian law, the removal of a hand, as well as the deprivation of the opportunity to use it, was equated to death, therefore, for this insult, a punishment was imposed that was equivalent to the punishment for murder, i.e. a fine of 40 hryvnia was imposed. Blood feud could also be used as punishment for this crime. But unlike other articles, which provided for blood feud as a form of punishment, in the event of injury, the victim’s relatives could take revenge, because he himself was unable to. Legal status of various segments of the population. (4.) Murder. Being a legal monument of a feudal state with all its inherent characteristics, Russian Truth in its articles clearly distinguishes the legal status of different groups of the population. Starting from Article 19, the class division of society becomes more clear. The law establishes fines for the murder of princely servants and for theft and damage to princely property. Article 19 says: “If a fireman is killed for an offense, then pay 80 hryvnia to the killer for him, but people do not need to; and for the prince’s entrance - 80 hryvnia.” Most likely, the words “murder for insult” mean murder in response to the actions of the victim (as A.I. Sobolevsky assumed). It can be assumed that we are talking about the murder of a princely servant in the performance of his duties. The next type of premeditated murder according to Russian Truth was robbery. In Ancient Rus' it was considered the most serious crime. In the case of the murder of a fireman, the responsibility for searching for the criminal was assigned to the verv (community) on whose territory the murder was committed. If the killer was not caught, then the rope was obliged to pay the viru in the amount of 80 hryvnia. A rather interesting norm is set out in Article 21, dedicated to the murder of a fireman or princely tiun while they are protecting princely property (“at a cage, or at a horse, or at a herd, or when stealing a cow”). This article obliges to deal with the murderer on the spot (“kill the dog in the spot”), which indicates the particularly dangerous nature of this crime and once again confirms the fact of enhanced protection of the prince’s servants. A number of subsequent articles (Articles 22 -27) list the fines levied for the murder of princely servants, as well as people dependent on the prince. After reading these articles, one can imagine the social structure of the society of that time and determine the position of certain groups of the population on the social ladder. The fines listed in these articles help us understand this. Thus, the life of a princely tiun and a senior groom is valued at 80 hryvnia, the life of a village headman, a farmer, a slave-nurse or her child - at 12 hryvnia, and the lives of rank and file, serfs and serfs are valued least of all - only 5 hryvnia 2. 3.4. 5. Theft or damage to property. Not only the prince’s servants, but also his property enjoyed special protection. Thus, Article 28 establishes the amount of fines for the theft or extermination of princely livestock. The same article also mentions the smerd horse. The different amounts of fines for stealing the prince's horse and the stink are immediately striking. In my opinion, this difference is not caused by the different use of these horses (i.e. the prince’s horse is a war horse, and the peasant’s is a worker), but simply the law puts the prince’s property under greater protection compared to the property of the smerd. A number of articles (Articles 29, 31, 32, 35 -37, 39, 40) consider various cases of theft. In the monument of law that I am studying, theft is given a significant place, the system of punishments for it is developed in sufficient detail, which indicates the wide distribution of this antisocial phenomenon even in that distant time. It should be noted that Russian Truth provides for more severe punishment in the event of a crime being committed by a group of persons, i.e. The concept of complicity is already known (Articles 31 and 40). Regardless of the number of criminals, each of them had to pay an increased fine compared to the fine imposed for theft committed alone. It is interesting that in Articles 35 and 36 the term “sale” is a fine established by law, collected in favor of the prince as a state body, i.e. going to the treasury. In addition to the sale, a penalty “for insult” is established in favor of the victim, which can be compared with the compensation for harm caused in modern legislation. Article 38 confirms the rule, apparently established by custom - the right to kill a thief at the scene of the crime. But the law limits this right, allowing him to be killed only at night and prohibiting killing a tied thief. This is similar to the current concept of exceeding the limits of necessary defense. This article, just like Article 33 (providing sanctions for physical violence against a smerd, fireman, tiun or swordsman without princely permission), is aimed at strengthening princely jurisdiction by limiting lynching. Indirectly confirming the existence of a community court, Article 33 indicates the desire of the princely authorities to establish a monopoly on the court. Speaking about the various population groups mentioned in the Russian Truth, it should be clarified that the slave was not at all a subject of law, i.e., being a personally dependent person, he did not bear personal responsibility for his actions. His owner had to answer for the crime he committed. The life of a serf was valued less than the life of other members of society, and the size of the fine for his removal, i.e. kidnapping (12 hryvnia under Art. 29) significantly exceeded the fine for his murder (5 hryvnia under Art. 26). Historical significance of Russian truth. By the standards of modern researchers, the historical significance of “Russian Truth” is difficult to overestimate. It acts as one of the most important sources for the study of Kievan Rus, its social life and public relations, as well as the norms of law and order and the structure of state power. In addition to its enormous significance for historians of Kievan Rus, it also acts as a source for the study of ancient norms and human rights in the field of crimes and corresponding punishments, and therefore is a valuable material for the study of legal rights of antiquity, that is, it is valuable for lawyers. If we talk about the style of presentation of thoughts in “Russian Truth,” then we can imagine its significance for literary scholars. And for its era, “Russian Truth” was a huge breakthrough forward, because, in fact, it was the first formed set of laws and social norms in the history of Kievan Rus. From all of the above, it follows that Yaroslav the Wise proved himself not only as a brilliant diplomat and commander, but also as a legislator and “organizer” of the internal life of the state, because it is not for nothing that history calls him the Wise.

Culture of Kievan Rus under Yaroslav the Wise.

The golden age of ancient Russian culture of the Kyiv period is the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. It was through his efforts that Metropolitan Hilarion would be elevated to the see of Kyiv. Yaroslav organized the translation and rewriting of books, thereby creating the first Russian library at the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral. The prince paid great attention to the development of Orthodoxy in Rus'. Under him, the first Russian saints were canonized - the princes brothers Boris and Gleb, who died during the strife that flared up in the years of Yaroslav's youth, when there was a struggle for the princely throne (1015). The cult of Saints Boris and Gleb was actively promoted and had important political significance for its time: according to Academician D.S. Likhachev, it was intended to strengthen the unity of Rus'. In addition, the cult contributed to the exaltation of Yaroslav himself, since he was the brother of the “innocently murdered” princes and acted as an avenger for them. At the instigation and under the patronage of Yaroslav the Wise, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” was created, which is, in essence, the life of the holy princes. The “Tale” embodied ideas about the holiness of brotherly bonds, the value of brotherly love, which were very widespread in the public consciousness of Ancient Rus'. During the reign of Yaroslav, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery appeared near Kyiv, which for a long time became one of the main spiritual and cultural centers of the Russian land. A remarkable work of ancient Russian literature is the life of St. Theodosius of Pechersk, one of the first and most revered abbots, compiled in the monastery at the end of the 11th century. Theodosius himself also left a mark in literature. He wrote numerous “Words” of theological content: about humility, about love and fasting, about spiritual benefit, etc. One of the characteristic features of the culture of Ancient Rus' is a great interest in history. The plots of almost all literary works fit into the historical context in one way or another. Historical works translated from Greek were very popular in Rus': the Chronicle of George Amartol, the Chronicle of John Malala, etc., on the basis of which in the 11th century. collections of world history are compiled, called chronographs. Records of a historical nature were also kept in Rus'. Presumably the very first chronicle (the so-called Ancient Code) was created already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century. It was followed by several more chronicle codes: the Nikon Code of 1073 and the Initial Code of 1095, which became the forerunner of the famous Tale of Bygone Years (1113). A significant proportion of historical information was preserved in oral traditions, some of which were then used by chroniclers, and some entered into the folklore tradition, becoming the basis for the formation of the Russian heroic epic - epics. The rapid flowering of literature under Yaroslav was largely due to the spread of literacy not only among the elite, but also among the broad masses of society. The beginning of this was laid by Prince Vladimir, who, after accepting Christianity, began to “catch” children from “deliberate children” (nobility) and forcibly send them “for book studies.” Yaroslav in 1037 specially allocated a certain amount of his income for priests so that they could teach people literacy and writing. The wide spread of literacy is evidenced by birch bark letters found during archaeological excavations, containing records of a wide variety of everyday content. Book publishing, the traditions of which were established under Yaroslav, continued to develop in the second half of the 11th century. The oldest Russian manuscript that has survived to this day is considered to be the Gospel, created in 1056 in Kyiv by order of the Novgorod boyar Ostromir. A real masterpiece is the Izbornik of Svyatoslav of 1073. This is a collection of translated moralizing discourses, written on large sheets of parchment and richly decorated. The production of books in those days was very labor-intensive; books were considered of great value. It reached great heights in the 10th–11th centuries. architecture. Its development is also inextricably linked with the spread of Christianity. Before the adoption of Orthodoxy, all buildings in ancient Russian cities were built from wood. Stone architecture came to Rus' along with the new religion. The construction was determined by the needs of the church - first of all, churches were built. The very first brick Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary (Tithe) was founded by Prince Vladimir immediately after returning from Korsun in 989. The so-called cross-domed type of church became widespread in Rus'. This model came to Rus' from Byzantium. Cross-domed churches of this type were called because the central (transverse and longitudinal) vaults of the temple, crossing, formed a cross topped with a dome. From the inside, the vaults and dome were supported by four columns. Just yesterday, pagan Rus', now competing with Byzantium itself in matters of faith, was in dire need of monumental confirmation of its high status. Kyiv sought to imitate Constantinople-Constantinople with its architectural decoration. Under Yaroslav the Wise, extensive temple and civil construction took place throughout Rus'. The best Constantinople craftsmen are invited to carry out the work. The majestic St. Sophia Cathedral is being built in Kyiv (1037). A distinctive feature of the churches built in Rus' was the multi-domed structure; St. Sophia of Kyiv was crowned with 13 domes. Following Kiev, Novgorod and Polotsk acquired their own cathedrals. Apparently, these cathedrals were built by the same team that built the cathedral in Kyiv: they have many similar features. All three cathedrals are consecrated in honor of St. Sofia. This name was not chosen by chance - the main city church of Constantinople is also St. Sophia. In Kiev, in addition to churches, new city walls with towers are being built, one of which, called the “Golden Gate” (again, following the example of Constantinople), served as the ceremonial entrance to the city. Temples were decorated with mosaics and frescoes. The Byzantine painting tradition of the so-called Komninian period (named after the Komnin dynasty ruling in Constantinople), which came to Rus' along with Christianity and temple construction, was distinguished by its spirituality and strict canonicity. The artistic system created in Byzantium most clearly corresponded to the medieval worldview. Static, flat, but at the same time extremely expressive images were intended to embody the idea of the superiority of the spirit over the flesh. Beautiful mosaics have been preserved in the central rooms of the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral. Novgorod Sofia was painted with frescoes. It is believed that Russian masters could also have taken part in the creation of the frescoes. In general, despite the great influence of Byzantium, Russian culture, from the very first steps of its development, reveals noticeable features of originality, this was manifested in dual faith - a bizarre fusion that formed Greek Orthodoxy and Slavic paganism, and in the many domes of the first Russian cathedrals, and in the epic, and in the very structure of everyday life, which has remained unchanged for the vast majority of the population. The deep traditions of ancient Slavic culture, which nourished the emerging Russian culture with its roots, made it possible to creatively transform the achievements adopted from neighbors, thereby laying the foundation for future development

Thus, we can conclude that, in general, the reign of Yaroslav the Wise led to the rise of Kievan Rus. In fact, the period of his reign was the “peak” of its development, when Rus' became one of the strongest world states, and it was “accepted” in Byzantium, France, the Scandinavian countries, and many other European countries. European monarchs could be proud of their connection with Kievan Rus. This, among other things, was due to the high level of organization of the internal life of Rus'. Indeed, during the reign of Yaroslav, the economy and cultural life of Kievan Rus rose to a new level. Yaroslav managed to achieve success in the field of domestic politics. His most important act here is the publication of “Russian Truth” - a collection of legal norms and laws. Just like in many other things, this was the first such document in the history of Rus'. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Christianity was finally strengthened in Rus'. The Grand Duke contributed to the development of culture and education. During his reign, the construction of the first churches and monasteries began, which led to a rise in the spiritual and cultural level of the country. No less important is the appointment of Hilarion to the post of Metropolitan of Kyiv, which meant the independence of Rus' from Byzantium in church affairs. Neither before this, nor for a long time after, Rus' had such a “privilege”. (The Metropolitan of Kiev was usually appointed by Byzantium.) As can be seen from the above, in general, the policy of Yaroslav the Wise can be called successful. His era is the era of the new rise of Rus'. He bequeathed to his successors to “protect and develop” Kievan Rus, but nevertheless, some time after his death, the gradual decline of Kievan Rus began. This is due to constant civil strife, imperfection of the apparatus of power, and much more. And yet, we can say with confidence that Yaroslav the Wise was one of the greatest world rulers in history.

Bibliography

1. Gubarev V.K. “History of Ukraine: reference book”, ed. "BAO", 655 pp., 2008.

2. Boyko O. D. “History of Ukraine”, ed. “Academvidav”, 687 pp., 2002.

4. Isaev I.A. “History of State and Law of Russia” Moscow, ed. "Lawyer", 278 pp., 1993.

5. Klyuchevsky V.O. "Russian history. A complete course of lectures in three books” Moscow, ed. “Thought”, 699 pp., 1993.

6. Website: #"#">http://www.portal-slovo.ru.

8. Website: http://norse.ulver.com/articles/jackson/marriage.html (Jackson T.N. “On the Scandinavian marriages of Yaroslav the Wise and his descendants”).

Add-ons

Speaking about Yaroslav the Wise, one cannot help but recall his famous nickname “father-in-law of Europe,” which he was given due to the conclusion of dynastic marriages with many European rulers. One of these marriages (although perhaps not the most important) is the marriage of Yaroslav's daughter Elizabeth and the Norwegian king Harold the Harsh. The daughter of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise, Elizabeth, is known only from the Icelandic sagas, where she bears the name Ellisif or Elisabeth. In a number of royal sagas, records from the beginning of the 13th century in “The Beautiful Skin”, “The Earthly Circle”, “The Saga of the Knüttlings”, as well as (without mentioning the name of the bride) in the “Acts of the Bishops of the Hamburg Church” by Adam of Bremen contain information about the marriage of Elizabeth and Harald the Severe Ruler (Norwegian king from 1046 to 1066). The story of the marriage of Harald and Elizabeth, as described in the sagas, is very romantic. A year after the Battle of Stiklastadir (1030), in which the famous Norwegian king Olav Haraldsson died, his half-brother Harald Sigurdarson went, as Snorri Sturluson reports in The Earthly Circle, “to the east to Gardariki to King Jaritsleif ", i.e. to Rus' to Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Snorri goes on to say that “King Jaritsleif received Harald and his men well. Then Harald became chief of the king's people who guarded the country... Harald remained in Gardariki for several winters and traveled throughout Austrweg. Then he set out on a journey to Grickland, and he had a large army. He was then on his way to Miklagard.” The reason for Harald’s departure to Byzantium is explained in “Rotten Skin” and in the “Saga of Harald Sigurdarson the Severe Ruler”, which goes back to it, based on the 14th century manuscript “Hulda”. It says here that “Harald traveled throughout Austrweg and accomplished many feats, and for this the king highly valued him. King Yaritsleif and Princess Ingigerd had a daughter named Elizabeth, the Normans call her Ellisiv. Harald started a conversation with the king to see if he would like to give him the girl as a wife, saying that he was known by his relatives and ancestors, and also partly by his behavior.” Yaroslav said that he could not give his daughter to a stranger who did not have a state and who was not rich enough to buy the bride, but did not reject his offer. It was after this conversation that Harald set off, reached Constantinople and spent about ten years there (c. 1034–1043) in the service of the Byzantine emperor. Returning to Rus', Harald took the gold that he had sent from Miklagard for safekeeping to Yaritsleif . In addition, in all the vaults it is reported that that winter “Yaritsleif gave his daughter to Harald as a wife.” These words of the saga are confirmed by a reference to the 4th stanza of “The Stuva Drape” (c. 1067) by the Icelandic skald Stuva the Blind: “The warlike king of Egda took for himself the wife he wanted. He got a lot of gold and the king’s daughter.” Neither the name of the king, nor the name of his young wife, nor “eastern” toponyms are listed. However, from “The Strand of Stuva” it is known that he was a warrior of King Harald Sigurdarson, so it was Harald who could be hiding under the nickname “warlike king of Egda.” Other skalds, for example, Thjodolf Arnarson and Valgard of Vella, also talk about the gold that “fell” to Harald. Adam of Bremen also speaks about the same marriage: “Harold, having returned from Greece, took as his wife the daughter of King Rutsia Herzlef.” In the spring, the sagas report with reference to the skald Valgard from Vella (“You launched a ship with a beautiful cargo; the honor was yours; indeed, you brought gold from the east from Gard, Harald"), Harald set out from Holmgard via Aldeigjuborg to Sweden. In the Icelandic annals we read: “1044. Harald [Sigurdarson] has arrived in Sweden." On this basis, we can conclude that the marriage of Harald and Elizabeth was concluded in the winter of 1043/44. Not a single source, talking about Harald’s departure from Rus', says that Elizabeth was with him on this journey. True, this conclusion can be reached based on the absence in the sagas of indications that their two daughters (Maria and Ingigerd, unknown, like Elizabeth, to Russian sources, know “Rotten Skin”, “Beautiful Skin”, “Earthly Circle” and "Hulda") were twins - otherwise Harald and Elizabeth, who, according to the sagas, spent one spring together between the wedding and Harald's sailing, could have only one daughter. This is confirmed by the subsequent news of the sagas that after many years, leaving Norway in 1066, Harald took Elizabeth, Mary and Ingigerd with him. According to the “Earthly Circle” and “Hulda,” Harald left Elizabeth and his daughters on the Orkney Islands, and he himself sailed to England. On “the same day and the same hour” when King Harald died in England, the sagas say, his daughter Maria died on the Orkney Islands. Elizabeth and Ingigerd, having spent the winter there, set off in the spring from the west. From this point on, Elizabeth is no longer mentioned in the sagas. N. M. Karamzin’s opinion regarding the fate of Elizabeth remained unnoticed in historiography: he believed that shortly after the wedding, Elizabeth died, “leaving two daughters, Ingigerda and Maria,” the first of whom “married Philip, King of Sweden” [Karamzin 1842. Book I. Note 41 to vol. II, ch. II. G. Storm, however, wonders whether Ellisiv's early death was the reason for Harald's second marriage. As you can see, these opinions contradict the data in the sagas about the fate of Elizabeth. Moreover, Ingigerd was married to Olav Sveinsson, the king of the Danes. There is a fairly widespread belief that after the death of Harald, Elizabeth Yaroslavna married the Danish king Sven Estridsen. However, this misconception, based on an incorrect interpretation of one piece of news from Adam of Bremen, can be considered successfully debunked. The marriage of Harald Sigurdarson and Elizabeth Yaroslavna strengthened Russian-Norwegian ties, which were friendly during the time of Olav Haraldsson - at least since 1022, i.e., from the death of Olav Sjötkonung, Yaroslav's father-in-law, and the coming to power in Sweden of Onund-Jacob, who soon entered into an alliance with Olav Haraldsson against Knut - and during the time of Magnus the Good (1035–1047), elevated to the Norwegian throne not without the participation of Yaroslav the Wise. In addition, this marriage led to a temporary alliance between Harald and the powerful Earl Svein Ulvsson, the future Danish king, better known by his maternal line as Sven Estridsen (1047–1074 or 1076). The collections of royal sagas and the “Knüttling Saga” emphasize that this alliance was based not only on the mutual claims of Harald and Svein to the lands subject to Magnus the Good - Norway and Denmark - but also on the family ties established through the marriage of Harald and Elizabeth (I note - very distant in the minds of modern man). (Cf.: S. Bagge on the importance of marriage ties in Norway for strengthening political alliances; the same by K. Hastrup on the situation in medieval Iceland) “There [in Sweden. - etc.] they met, Harald and Earl Svein, who fled from Denmark from King Magnus. And Svein suggested that they should enter into an alliance because of their misfortune, that both of them by birth have the right to those kingdoms that King Magnus captured, and declared his relationship with Harald. Svein was a relative of Ellisiv, the wife of Harald, the daughter of King Yaritsleif and Princess Ingigerd, the daughter of Olaf [Shetkonung. - etc.]. Olaf's sister was Astrid, Svein's mother, because Sigrid the Cruel was the mother of both of them, King Olaf and Astrid." According to G.V. Glazyrina, “the alliance with Russia did not give the expected results, so Harald, after leaving Rus' around 1044, reoriented and began to rely in his struggle on the support of forces inside Norway, as evidenced by the establishment of family ties with the Norwegian nobility” . Similarly, S. Bagge believes that “Harald the Severe, having returned from abroad and, probably, feeling the absence of strong relatives - and relatives on the female side? - takes a very unusual step and marries Thora, the daughter of the Norwegian tycoon Thorberg Arnason.” Both of these theses require, in my opinion, additional consideration and clarification. Analysis of a large set of sources allows us to assert that Thora was not Harald’s wife bought for a mund (wedding gift), but was his concubine. If, indeed, the goal of this union was to gain “strong relatives,” then, as S. Bagge revealed, “the concubines and illegitimate sons of the kings served to strengthen alliances no less than the institution of adoption.” The connection between Harald and Tora, however, in addition to political motives, could, as it seems to me, be provoked by the fact that Harald and Elizabeth did not have sons - successors of the family and contenders for the throne. The material of the sagas, despite its fragmentary and indirect nature, seems to convince us that Elizabeth Yaroslavna remained the Norwegian queen for more than twenty years - from the winter of 1043/44 until the death of her husband Harald Sigurdarson on September 25, 1066 at the Battle of Stamfordbridge .

4. Architectural heritage of Yaroslav the Wise. (To the third section) Kiev-Pechersk Lavra (Ukrainian: Kiev-Pechersk Lavra)

One of the first monasteries to be founded in Rus'. Founded in 1051 under Yaroslav the Wise by monk Anthony, originally from Lyubech. The co-founder of the Pechersk Monastery was one of Anthony’s first students, Theodosius. Prince Svyatoslav II Yaroslavich gave the monastery a plateau above the caves, where beautiful stone churches decorated with paintings, cells, fortress towers and other buildings later grew. The names of the chronicler Nestor (author of “The Tale of Bygone Years”), as well as the artist Alypius, are associated with the monastery. Currently, the lower Lavra is under the jurisdiction of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), and the upper Lavra is under the jurisdiction of the national Kiev-Pechersk historical and cultural reserve. The Kiev-Pechersk Lavra is located in the center of Kyiv, on the right, high bank of the Dnieper, and occupies two hills, separated by a deep hollow descending to the Dnieper. In the 11th century the area was covered with forest; Hilarion, the priest of the nearby village of Berestov, retired here to pray and dug a cave here for himself. In 1051, Hilarion was installed as Metropolitan of Kyiv and his cave was empty. Around that time, monk Anthony, a native of Lyubech, came to Kyiv from Athos; Life in the Kyiv monasteries was not to his liking, and he settled in Hilarion’s cave. Anthony's piety attracted followers to his cave, including Theodosius, from Kursk. When their number increased to 12, they built a church and cells for themselves. Anthony installed Varlaam as abbot, and he himself retired to a nearby mountain, where he dug a new cave for himself. This cave served as the beginning of the “near” caves, so named in contrast to the previous, “distant” ones. With the increase in the number of monks, when the caves became crowded, they built the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and cells above the cave.

The number of people coming to the monastery increased, and Anthony asked Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich for the entire mountain above the cave. A church was built on the site of the current main cathedral (1062); The resulting monastery was named Pechersky. At the same time, Theodosius was appointed abbot. He introduced a cenobitic studio charter in the monastery, which was borrowed from here and by other Russian monasteries. The harsh ascetic life of the monks and their piety attracted significant donations to the monastery. A stone church was founded in 1073, completed and consecrated in 1089.

The Golden Gate (Ukrainian: Zoloti Vorota) is one of the few monuments of defensive architecture of Kievan Rus during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the territory of the city was actively growing, which required the construction of new defensive fortifications - powerful ramparts with reinforced wooden cages and deep ditches were erected. The city of Yaroslav the Wise was surrounded by earthen ramparts with a total length of 3.5 kilometers, they ran along the current streets of the center of Kiev - from Lviv Square (where the Lviv Gate was located) along Yaroslav Val Street to the Golden Gate, descended to Independence Square (where the Lyadskie Gate stood) and again went up to Mikhailovskaya Square. The Tale of Bygone Years mentions: “In the summer of 6545 (1037). Found Yaroslav the great city, its city is the Golden Gate<…>and plant a church on the Golden Gate of the Holy Mother of God of the Annunciation.” The Kyiv Golden Gate received its name from the Golden Gate of Constantinople, which performed similar functions. This was probably a kind of rivalry with the great Byzantine Empire.

Architecture. The Golden Gate is a fortress tower with a wide (up to 7.5 m) passage. Powerful pilasters protrude into the passage, on which the arches of the vault rested. The height of the surviving walls reaches 9.5 meters. The gate was made of stone, due to the fact that this structure was given special significance. They were built using the mixed masonry technique, known since the times of Ancient Rome: layers of stones alternated with leveling rows of plinths. The decorative features of the masonry are clearly visible on the front surface of the walls. The Gate was crowned by the Gate Church of the Annunciation, so that every traveler approaching Kyiv could see that this was a Christian city. During the restoration work, the gate church was recreated as a four-pillar, single-domed church with apses recessed into the thickness of the wall, which do not protrude from the overall volume of the facade. Brick ornaments, characteristic of the art of that period, were used as architectural decoration. During the archaeological research of the Golden Gate, smalt cubes and fragments of fresco plaster were discovered, which indicates that the ancient church was decorated with fresco paintings and mosaics. The gate was intended for ceremonial entry into the capital and was located in the southern part of the city. This is the main gate of the city, one of the three large city gates built under Yaroslav the Wise. On the field side in front of the gate there was a ditch 15 meters wide and 8 meters deep. Traces of this ditch can now be seen in the level difference of Zolotovorotsky Proezd. The construction of the gate along with the St. Sophia Cathedral is mentioned in the chronicle under 1037. In 1240, the gate was badly damaged during the siege and capture of the city by Batu's hordes. From the records of travelers of the 16th-17th centuries. and drawings by A. Van Westerfeld (1651) it is known that by this time the Golden Gate was dilapidated.

St. Sophia's Cathedral (Ukrainian: Sophia Cathedral) was built in the 11th century in the center of Kyiv by order of Yaroslav the Wise. At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, it was externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style. Inside the Cathedral, many ancient frescoes and mosaics have been preserved, including the famous mosaic of Our Lady of Oranta. St. Sophia Cathedral became the first architectural monument included in the UNESCO World Heritage List on the territory of Ukraine. Since the Hagia Sophia is a state museum-reserve and is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, it is prohibited to transfer it to any religious organization and to hold services there. The exception is the day of August 24 - Independence Day of Ukraine, when representatives of religious organizations perform a prayer for Ukraine (introduced since 2005), November 22, 2006, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate refused to participate in this event in the future: according to the statement of the Synod of the UOC MP. Various chronicles (all of them were created later than the time of construction of the cathedral) call the foundation date of the cathedral 1017 or 1037. Considering the political situation in Rus', the second date is considered closer to the truth. Recently, there has been a widespread version about the foundation of the cathedral by Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 1011, which does not have strict scientific grounds. In 1240, the St. Sophia Cathedral was plundered and destroyed by Batu's soldiers, in 1385-90. Metropolitan Cyprian rebuilt it from ruins, after which it was abandoned for more than three and a half centuries, although it continued to operate. In 1596, the cathedral passed to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church; in the 1630s, it was taken away from it by the Kyiv Metropolitan Peter (Mogila), who restored the cathedral and founded a monastery with it. Work to renovate the temple continued until 1740, when it finally acquired its current appearance. The bell tower of St. Sophia Cathedral was built by order of Hetman Mazepa. The bell, also cast to his order, has survived to this day, located on the second floor of the bell tower and called “Mazepa”. In 1934, the architectural complex, which in addition to the St. Sophia Cathedral includes a bell tower, the Metropolitan's house, a bursa, a refectory, a southern entrance tower, a western gate, a fraternal building, cells and a consistory, was declared the State Architectural and Historical Reserve "Sofia Museum". Included on the World Heritage List in 1990.

Architectural features of St. Sophia Cathedral. Initially, St. Sophia Cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed church with 13 chapters. It was surrounded on three sides by a two-tier gallery, and outside by an even wider single-tier one. The central nave and transept are much wider than the side naves, forming a clear cross in the interior of the cathedral. The cruciform composition was also visible from outside the temple. The naves of the cathedral ended in the east with five altar apses. The cathedral had a pyramidal composition. The cylindrical vaults that covered its central and transverse naves rose in steps to the center of the building. The central dome was surrounded by four smaller ones, and the remaining eight even smaller domes were located in the corners of the cathedral. The drums of the domes and apse have a faceted shape. In addition to the windows, the free sections of the walls are decorated with stepped niches and blades, dividing the surface of the walls in accordance with the location of the internal load-bearing pillars. The cathedral was built using the Byzantine technique from alternating rows of stone and plinth (wide, thin bricks); the outside of the masonry was covered with cement mortar. In order to present the original appearance of the cathedral, the restorers left areas of exposed ancient masonry on the facades. The length of the cathedral without galleries is 29.5 m, width - 29.3; with galleries: 41.7 and 54.6. The height to the top of the main dome is 28.6 m, the size of the central dome square is 7.6 m. The cathedral was built by Constantinople builders, with the participation of Kyiv craftsmen. Meanwhile, it is impossible to find direct analogues of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Byzantine architecture of that time. The temples then built in the empire were usually smaller, having only 3 naves and one dome. It is assumed that the Byzantines were given the task of creating a large temple for ceremonies, the main temple of Rus', which they solved by increasing the number of naves and adding dome drums to illuminate them. At the same time, the original architectural design of the cathedral had its own symbolism. The central high dome of the temple always reminded of Christ, the Head of the Church, in Byzantine architecture. Twelve smaller domes of the cathedral were associated with the apostles, and four of them with the evangelists, through whom Christianity was preached to all ends of the earth. As a result of restorations and reconstruction in the 17th-18th centuries, the cathedral significantly changed its appearance. The external galleries were built on, new chapels appeared, topped with additional domes (there are now 19 in total). The cathedral was whitewashed. The ancient hemispherical shape of the domes was replaced by a high pear-shaped shape characteristic of Ukrainian Baroque. The original structure of the cathedral is now best visible from the side of the altar, where fragments of the original decoration of the facades are also revealed. The interior of the St. Sophia Cathedral is dominated by a well-lit central domed space, shaped like a cross. Its eastern branch ends with the main apse, and the side ones are separated from the side naves by two-tiered three-bay arcades. The western branch of the dome cross also ended with a third similar arcade. The western arcade has not survived, as it was dismantled during the renovation of the cathedral. The pillars of the cathedral have a cruciform cross-section. The side naves of the cathedral and its entire western part are occupied by extensive choirs, connected to the second floor by a gallery. The numerous domes of the cathedral on drums cut through by windows provide the choirs with good lighting. The cathedral choirs were intended for the prince, his retinue and the nobility. Here the prince listened to divine services and, probably, court ceremonies were held here. The choir was reached by two spiral staircases located in the staircase towers built into the western gallery of the temple. Interior. The interior of the cathedral has preserved a large number of frescoes and mosaics of the 11th century, made by the best Byzantine masters. The palette of mosaics includes 177 shades. The style of the mosaics corresponds to Byzantine art of the first half of the 11th century, the so-called ascetic style. The central dome, its drum, sails and girth arches, as well as the central apse and the two eastern pillars flanking it, were decorated with mosaics. At the zenith of the dome there is a mosaic depicting Christ Pantocrator, with four archangels around Him. Of these, only one ancient mosaic has survived, the rest were completed in the 19th century by M. A. Vrubel with oil paints. In the drum between the windows, figures of the apostles are depicted (only one figure of the Apostle Paul has survived from the 11th century); below, on the sails of the dome, writing evangelists are depicted. Among them, only the figure of the Evangelist Mark has been preserved from ancient times. On the girth arches there are medallions with half-length figures of 40 Sebastian martyrs. The most famous mosaic of the cathedral - Our Lady of the Unbreakable Wall - is located in the concha (vaulted part) of the central altar apse. Below it is depicted the Eucharist - the communion of the apostles with Christ, and even lower are the saints - the ancient holy bishops, the Fathers of the Church. On the eastern pillars of the cathedral there is an image of the Annunciation (on one pillar there is the figure of the Archangel Gabriel, on the other - the Mother of God). The mosaic was created around 1040 and is the oldest depiction of this scene in Russian art. The rest of the interior was painted with frescoes. On the vaults there were twelve feasts that have not survived to this day, corresponding to the most important moments of gospel history. On the side walls of the central space (on the side arcades) scenes of the Passion of Christ and His Resurrection were preserved; the cycle ended with scenes of the apostles being sent to preach and the descent of the Holy Spirit on them. The side apses are also painted with frescoes, where the cycles of the childhood of the Mother of God (proto-gospel), the acts of the apostles, the life of St. George, the acts of the Archangel Michael are presented, respectively, with the chapels consecrated here. Numerous pillars of the cathedral and the walls of the galleries are covered with images of saints. The vaults and small domes are decorated with images of heavenly powers, and the medallions feature waist-length figures of angels. In the western part of the dome cross there was a clergy composition. Only the side parts of it have been preserved, and the rest of the image is reconstructed according to a drawing by A. van Westerfeld, made in 1651. On the sides of Christ here, Prince Yaroslav the Wise was probably depicted with a model of the cathedral in his hand and his wife Irina, and on the sides of them - sons and daughters. Perhaps the Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir and Princess Olga were depicted directly in front of Christ. Painting by Yuri Khimich Unbreakable Sofia 1965 on a postage stamp. The most unusual images are in the staircase towers. Here are scenes of court life, the Constantinople Hippodrome, musicians, and hunting. Also, a lot of graffiti, including from the 11th-12th centuries, has been preserved on the walls of the temple.

Some famous icons of St. Sophia Cathedral:

Hilarion (d. after 1051) is the first Russian Metropolitan of Kiev since 1051, the author of the first Russian literary and philosophical work, “The Tale of Law and Grace.” We know practically nothing about his life. There are only two mentions in the “Tale of Bygone Years”, a record of similar content at the end of the “Confession of Faith” by Hilarion himself (or on his behalf), a reference by Simon to the “Life of Anthony” (about the installation of Hilarion as a presbyter and tonsure of Hilarion by Anthony of Pechersk) and a mention of him name in the "Charter of Yaroslav". Apparently, before being elected metropolitan, Hilarion was a presbyter of one of the Kyiv churches. But the only reliable fact is that in 1051, during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the council of bishops elected him Metropolitan of Kyiv, the first, Russian by origin. Before him (from 1037), and for a long time after him, this most important church-political post was occupied exclusively by Greeks appointed from Byzantium. There are two important facts in the election of Hilarion itself. On the one hand, this is an attempt to revive the traditions of the early, still Vladimir era, of the Russian Church, the head of which was elected by all bishops.

On the other hand, there is a noticeable desire to emphasize the independence of the Kyiv state from Byzantium, both in the church and in the political sense. And it was not without reason that Hilarion himself, unlike the Greek metropolitans, strove for the Russian Church to gain an independent position and supported the idea of independence for the entire Russian state. However, this situation did not last long - soon the great princes of Kyiv again turned to the patronage of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Apparently, among other things, the division of the Churches that occurred in 1054 played an important role here. And Hilarion’s name is not mentioned anywhere else. According to some assumptions, Hilarion spent his last days in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery; in any case, that is where, according to legend, his grave is located. Nevertheless, the personality of Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kyiv, undoubtedly belongs to the most significant in Russian history. After all, he made a significant contribution to the formation of Russian culture, creating the first Russian literary and philosophical work - “The Word of Law and Grace.” Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace" is a most interesting monument of Russian religious and philosophical thought, because testifies to the manifestation in the XI of the spiritual heritage of early Russian Christianity, close to the Cyril and Methodius tradition.. The text of the monument itself has been preserved in more than 50 copies of the XV-XVI centuries. and in different editions, and the list of the mid-15th century is considered the most authoritative. It was from this list that the text of the Lay was published by N.N. Rozov in 1963. New reprints of “The Lay” began only in the mid-80s, the last of them - in the series “Library of Literature of Ancient Rus'” - prepared by A.M. Moldovan. Typically, the time of writing the monument is dated between 1037 and 1050. (the first date is the illumination of the Sophia Cathedral, the second is the death of Yaroslav's wife Irina - Ingigerd, which is usually dated to 1050). M.D. Priselkov narrows these chronological milestones to 1037 - 1043. A.G. Kuzmin, on the contrary, proposes to abandon the lower date and bring the dating of the monument closer to the upper date, while he considers the upper date itself to be 1051, not 1050. The contents of the monument also give rise to differing opinions. So, also I.N. Zhdanov drew attention to Hilarion’s contrast of the New Testament with the Old, as the Law of Grace, and the Russian Church of Byzantium. Recently V.V. Kozhinov tried to interpret the opinion of Metropolitan Hilarion differently, believing that the entire pathos of the “Lay” was directed against the Khazar Kaganate. However, this point of view was not supported by most researchers. In addition, Metropolitan Hilarion owns two texts - “Prayer” and “Confession of Faith”, which are usually published together with the “Word”. Logical analysis allows us to divide the “Word of Law and Grace” into three component parts. The first part is a kind of philosophical and historical introduction. It is based on reasoning about the relationship between the Old and New Testaments - Law and Grace. The meaning of such reasoning is varied. On the one hand, this is a continuation of a purely theological dispute between the Western, Roman Church and the Eastern, Orthodox Church. The fact is that Western Christianity revered the Old Testament as a collection of various kinds of legal norms, as a justification of pragmatic aspirations characteristic of the Western world, etc. In the East, the Old Testament was given much less importance. Hilarion in his “Word” stands closer to the Eastern Church. He says: “First is the law, and therefore is grace; first is sorrow, and therefore is truth.” Thus, Hilarion emphasizes that following the norms of the Old Testament alone does not lead people to the salvation of the soul, just as the knowledge of the Law (the “shadow”) of the ancient Jews did not save them. Moreover, preference for the Old Testament can lead to Judaism. In general, the word “wall” can be translated either as “canopy” or “shadow”. In the epistles of the Apostle Paul, the Law, the covenant of the Law is “the shadow of the future,” “the image and shadow of heavenly things,” “the shadow of future blessings.” In the Ostrog Bible these passages are translated as follows: “the wall of things to come,” “whose image and walls serve the heavenly,” “the shadow and law of the good things to come.” Consequently, in terms of content, the “wall” is a prototype, reflection, prophecy of future benefits and grace. Only the New Testament (“truth”), given to humanity by Jesus Christ, is Grace, for Jesus, with his death, atoned for all human sins, and by his posthumous resurrection He opened the path to salvation for all peoples: “For the Law was the forerunner and the servant of goodness and truth, and the truth and grace is a servant of the future age, of incorruptible life. As the law led us to a virtuous baptism, our sons are allowed to baptize themselves for eternal life. Moses and the prophets told about the coming of Christ, but Christ and his apostles told about the resurrection and about the world to come." To prove his thought, Hilarion writes a lengthy discussion on the biblical parable of Sarah and Hagar. This reasoning is the first example of a symbolic-allegorical interpretation of biblical subjects in Russian literature. Subsequently, the symbolic interpretation of the Bible will become the main method in the work of ancient Russian scribes. The essence of the parable is this. Sarah, the wife of the forefather Abraham, was barren for a long time. And Abraham, on the advice of his wife, begat a son, Ishmael, from the slave girl Hagar. But the Lord had mercy on Sarah, and in her old age she was also able to give birth to a son, Jacob. The meaning of this parable, according to Hilarion, is very deep. Hagar is an image of the Old Testament, the Law, which is born earlier, but, born of a slave, continues to remain a slave. Sarah is a symbol of the New Testament, Grace, which gives birth to a free Jacob. Likewise, the Old Testament cannot be true, although it came before the New Testament. Therefore, it is not the “birthright” that is decisive, but the fact that the Lord sent the truth to people in the covenants of Jesus Christ. “The law came first and came from little by little,” says Hilarion. “The Christian faith, having appeared later, became greater than the first and multiplied into many languages. And Christ’s grace embraced the whole earth and covered the waters of the sea.” Hilarion's discussion of Sarah and Hagar reveals two important ideas. Firstly, Christ's Grace is so significant that it saves all people who have received Holy Baptism, regardless of when the baptism itself occurred. Secondly, the mere fact of baptism is enough for people who accepted it to be worthy of salvation. “For Christians, their salvation is good and generously extends to all the edges of the earth...” writes Hilarion. “Christians are not justified by truth and grace, but are saved.” In the second part of the “Words” Hilarion develops the ideas of salvation by Grace alone, already in application to Rus'. The Baptism of Rus', performed by Grand Duke Vladimir, showed that Grace had spread to Russian borders. Consequently, the Lord did not despise Rus', but saved it, leading it to the knowledge of the truth. “And we are no longer called idolaters,” writes Hilarion, “in Christianity, not yet hopeless, but hopeful in eternal life.” And now, as Hilarion joyfully exclaims: “Our God has had mercy on all the good countries and has not despised us; we have been saved and brought to the true mind.” Having accepted Rus' under his protection, the Lord granted it greatness. And now this is not a “thin” and “unknown” land, but the Russian land, “which is known and heard by all four ends” of the world. Moreover, Christian Rus' can hope for a great and wonderful future, for it is predetermined by God’s Providence. The third part of the “Word” is devoted to the glorification of the great princes of Kyiv. First of all, we are talking about Prince Vladimir (in baptism - Vasily), whom the Almighty Himself visited and in whose heart the light of knowledge shone: “And so in his days he lived and shepherded his land with righteousness, with courage and meaning, a visit came to him Most High, look upon him with the all-merciful eye of the good God, and with all your understanding in his heart, as if you understand the vanity of idolatry and flattery and seek the one God, who created all creation, visible and invisible.” In addition to Vladimir, Hilarion glorifies Prince Yaroslav the Wise (baptized George), whose contemporary and comrade-in-arms the Metropolitan himself was. But it is interesting that Hilarion also glorifies the pagans Igor and Svyatoslav, who laid the foundation for the future power of the Russian state. Moreover, in his work Hilarion refers to the Russian princes with the title “Kagan”. But this title in those days was equivalent to the title of emperor. And Hilarion compares Vladimir himself with Emperor Constantine: “His servant is like the great Constantine, equal in understanding, equal in love with Christ, equal in honor!” As you can see, the theological reasoning of Metropolitan Hilarion is the basis for serious historical and political generalizations and conclusions. Evidence in favor of Grace gives Metropolitan Hilarion the opportunity to show the place and role of Rus' in world history, to demonstrate the greatness of his Motherland, for Rus' was sanctified by Grace, and not by Law. In fact, “The Lay” is a song of praise to Rus' and its princes. And the chanting of the dignity and glory of the Russian land and the descendants of Igor the Old who reigned there is directed directly against the political claims of Byzantium. “The Sermon on Law and Grace” also illustrates the first steps of Christianity in Ancient Rus'. It is not difficult to notice that Hilarion’s Christianity has a pronounced optimistic character, it is permeated with the belief that salvation will be given to everyone who has received Holy Baptism, that Christianity itself has transformed Rus', opened the gates to the divine palaces for it. Consequently, in the interpretation of Christian doctrine, Metropolitan Hilarion is close to early Russian Christianity, which has its origins in the Cyril and Methodius tradition. And Hilarion was not alone in this. As research shows, similar views are expressed in “Memory and Praise to the Russian Prince Vladimir” by Jacob Mnich, where plots comparing the exploits of Vladimir and Olga with the acts of Constantine and Helen occupy a large place. The main thing is that in both one and the other monuments one can clearly feel the optimistic, joyful, even enthusiastic mood from the very fact of the Baptism of Rus'. In the historiosophical sense, Metropolitan Hilarion continued and developed the line begun in the chronicle tradition, making efforts to “inscribe” the history of Rus' into biblical history. Numerous biblical analogies that fill the text of “The Word of Law and Grace” allow the author to present Rus' as a state that has joined the ranks of other Christian states and occupies the most worthy place in this series. But the completely conscious and demonstrative preference of the New Testament to the Old also proved the independence of Rus' both in comparison with the West and in comparison with the East. Hilarion was later canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church; the time of canonization is unknown. The memory of the saint is celebrated on the day of commemoration of the council of all Kiev-Pechersk venerable fathers on the 2nd week of Great Lent and on the day of commemoration of the council of the Kiev-Pechersk venerable fathers resting in the Near Caves - September 28 (October 11).

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