What did Freud create? Z

In the fall of 1885, having received a scholarship, Freud went on an internship with the famous psychiatrist Charcot. Freud is fascinated by Charcot's personality, but the young doctor is even more impressed by his experiments with hypnosis. Then, at the Salpêtrière clinic, Freud encounters patients with hysteria and the amazing fact that severe bodily symptoms, such as paralysis, are relieved with the mere words of the hypnotist. At this moment, Freud first realized that consciousness and the psyche are not identical, that there is a significant area of mental life about which the person himself has no idea. Freud's long-standing dream - to find an answer to the question of how a person became what he became, is beginning to take on the contours of a future discovery.

Returning to Vienna, Freud gives a speech to the Medical Society and faces complete rejection from his colleagues. The scientific community rejects his ideas, and he is forced to look for his own path to their development. In 1877, Freud met the famous Viennese psychotherapist Joseph Breuer, and in 1895 they wrote the book “Studies in Hysteria.” Unlike Breuer, who presents in this book his cathartic method of releasing the affect associated with the trauma, Freud insists on the importance of remembering the event itself that caused the trauma.

Freud listens to his patients, believing that the causes of their suffering are known not to him, but to themselves. Known in such a strange way that they are stored in memory, but patients do not have access to them. Freud listens to patients' stories about how they were seduced as children. In the fall of 1897, he understands that in reality these events might not have happened, that for mental reality there is no difference between memory and fantasy. What is important is not to find out what happened “in reality”, but to analyze how this mental reality itself is structured - the reality of memories, desires and fantasies. How is it possible to know anything about this reality? Allowing the patient to say whatever comes to mind, allowing his thoughts to flow freely. Freud invents the method of free association. If the course of movement is not imposed on thoughts from the outside, then their own logic is revealed in unexpected associative connections, transitions from topic to topic, sudden memories. Saying whatever comes to mind is the basic rule of psychoanalysis.

Freud is uncompromising. He refuses hypnosis because it is aimed at relieving symptoms, and not at eliminating the causes of the disorder. He sacrifices his friendship with Joseph Breuer, who did not share his views on the sexual etiology of hysteria. When Freud spoke about childhood sexuality at the end of the 19th century, Puritan society turned away from him. He will be separated from the scientific and medical community for almost 10 years. It was a difficult period of life and, nevertheless, very productive. In the fall of 1897, Freud began self-analysis. Lacking his own analyst, he resorts to correspondence with his friend Wilhelm Fliess. In one of his letters, Freud will say that he discovered in himself many unconscious thoughts that he had previously encountered in his patients. Later, this discovery will allow him to question the very difference between mental norm and pathology.

The psychoanalytic process of self-knowledge of the subject reveals the importance of the presence of the other. The psychoanalyst participates in the process not as an ordinary interlocutor and not as someone who knows something about the subject being analyzed that he himself does not know. A psychoanalyst is one who listens in a special way, catching in the patient’s speech what he says but does not hear himself. In addition, the analyst is the one to whom the transfer is made, the one in relation to whom the patient reproduces his attitude towards other people who are significant to him. Freud gradually understands the importance of transference for psychoanalytic treatment. Gradually it becomes clear to him that the two most important elements of psychoanalysis are transference and free association.

Then Freud began writing The Interpretation of Dreams. He understands: dream interpretation is the royal path to understanding the unconscious. In this one phrase one can read all of Freud’s caution towards words. First, interpretation, not interpretation. This makes psychoanalysis similar to astrology, the interpretation of ancient texts, and the work of an archaeologist interpreting hieroglyphs. Secondly, the path. Psychoanalysis is not a symptom-relieving practice, which is what hypnosis is. Psychoanalysis is the subject's path to his own truth, his unconscious desire. This desire is not located in the hidden content of the dream, but is located between the obvious and the hidden, in the very form of transforming one into the other. Thirdly, this is a path to understanding, not a path into the unconscious. The goal of psychoanalysis, therefore, is not to penetrate into the unconscious, but to expand the subject's knowledge of himself. And finally, fourthly, Freud speaks specifically about the unconscious, and not about the subconscious. The last term refers us to physical space in which something is located below and something is located above. Freud avoids attempts to localize the instances of the mental apparatus, including in the brain.

Sigmund Freud himself will designate his discovery as the third scientific revolution, which changed man's views on the world and himself. The first revolutionary was Copernicus, who proved that the Earth is not the center of the universe. The second was Charles Darwin, who disputed the divine origin of man. And finally, Freud states that the human ego is not master in its own house. Like his famous predecessors, Freud paid dearly for the narcissistic wound he inflicted on humanity. Even having received the long-awaited recognition of the public, he cannot be satisfied. America, which he visited in 1909 to give lectures on an introduction to psychoanalysis and where he was received with a bang, disappoints with its pragmatic attitude towards his ideas. The Soviet Union, where psychoanalysis received state support, by the end of the 20s abandoned the psychoanalytic revolution and embarked on the path of totalitarianism. The popularity that psychoanalysis receives frightens Freud no less than the ignorance with which his ideas are rejected. In an effort to prevent abuse of his creation, Freud participates in the creation of international psychoanalytic movements, but in every possible way refuses to occupy leadership positions in them. Freud is obsessed with the desire to know, not the desire to control.

In 1923, doctors discovered a tumor in Sigmund Freud's mouth. Freud underwent an unsuccessful operation, which was followed by another 32 during the 16 years of his remaining life. As a result of the development of a cancerous tumor, part of the jaw had to be replaced with a prosthesis, which left non-healing wounds and also interfered with speech. In 1938, when Austria became part of Nazi Germany as a result of the Anschluss, the Gestapo searched Freud's apartment at Bergasse 19, and his daughter Anna was taken away for interrogation. Freud, realizing that this can no longer continue, decides to emigrate. For the last year and a half of his life, Freud lives in London, surrounded by family and only his closest friends. He is finishing his latest psychoanalytic works and fighting a developing tumor. In September 1939, Freud reminds his friend and doctor Max Schur of his promise to provide one last service to his patient. Schur keeps his word and on September 23, 1939, Freud passes away as a result of euthanasia, independently choosing the moment of his death.

Freud left behind a huge literary legacy; his Russian-language collected works total 26 volumes. His works to this day arouse keen interest not only among biographers; being written in an outstanding style, they contain ideas that again and again require comprehension. It is no coincidence that one of the most famous analysts of the 20th century. Jacques Lacan entitled the program of his work “Back to Freud.” Sigmund Freud repeated more than once that the motive of his work was the desire to understand how a person became what he became. And this desire is reflected throughout his legacy.

Birth of psychoanalysis

The history of psychoanalysis dates back to the 1890s in Vienna, when Sigmund Freud worked to develop a more effective way to treat neurotic and hysterical illnesses. Somewhat earlier, Freud was confronted with the fact that some mental processes were not recognized by him as a result of his neurological consultations in the children's hospital, and he discovered that in many children with speech disorders there was no organic reason for the occurrence of these symptoms. Later in 1885, Freud underwent an internship at the Salpêtrière clinic under the guidance of the French neurologist and psychiatrist Jean Martin Charcot, who had a strong influence on him. Charcot drew attention to the fact that his patients often suffered from such somatic diseases as paralysis, blindness, tumors, without having any organic disorders characteristic of such cases. Before Charcot's work, it was believed that women with hysterical symptoms had a wandering uterus ( hystera means "uterus" in Greek), but Freud found that men could also experience similar psychosomatic symptoms. Freud also became familiar with the experiments in the treatment of hysteria carried out by his mentor and colleague Joseph Breuer. This treatment was a combination of hypnosis and catharsis, and later processes of discharging emotions similar to this method were called “abreaction”.

Despite the fact that most scientists considered dreams either a collection of mechanical memories of the past day or a meaningless collection of fantastic images, Freud developed the point of view of other researchers that a dream is an encrypted message. Analyzing the associations that arise in patients in connection with one or another detail of a dream, Freud made a conclusion about the etiology of the disorder. Realizing the origin of their disease, patients, as a rule, were cured.

As a young man, Freud became interested in hypnosis and its use in helping the mentally ill. Later he abandoned hypnosis, preferring free association method and dream analysis. These methods became the basis of psychoanalysis. Freud was also interested in what he called hysteria, now known as conversion syndrome.

Symbols, unlike ordinary elements of a manifest dream, have a universal (the same for different people) and stable meaning. Symbols are found not only in dreams, but also in fairy tales, myths, everyday speech, and poetic language. The number of objects depicted in dreams by symbols is limited.

Dream interpretation method

The method Freud used to interpret dreams is as follows. After he was told the content of the dream, Freud began to ask the same question about individual elements (images, words) of this dream - what comes to the narrator’s mind about this element when he thinks about it? The person was required to communicate all the thoughts that came into his head, regardless of the fact that some of them may seem ridiculous, irrelevant or obscene.

The rationale behind this method is that mental processes are strictly determined, and if a person, when asked to say what comes to his mind regarding a given element of a dream, a certain thought comes to mind, this thought cannot in any way be random; it will certainly be associated with this element. Thus, the psychoanalyst does not interpret someone's dream himself, but rather helps the dreamer in this. In addition, some special elements of dreams can still be interpreted by a psychoanalyst without the help of the dream owner. These are symbols - elements of dreams that have a constant, universal meaning that does not depend on in whose dream these symbols appear.

last years of life

Freud's books

"The Interpretation of Dreams", 1900
"Totem and Taboo", 1913
"Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis", 1916-1917
"I and It", 1923
"Moses and Monotheism", 1939

Literature

Brian D. “Freudian Psychology and the Post-Freudians.” - Refl-book. - 1997.
Zeigarnik. “Theories of personality in foreign psychology.” - Moscow University Publishing House. - 1982.
Lacan J. Seminars. Book 1. Freud's works on the technique of psychoanalysis (1953-1954) M: Gnosis/Logos, 1998.
Lacan J. Seminars. Book 2. “I” in Freud’s theory and in the technique of psychoanalysis (1954-1955) M: Gnosis/Logos, 1999.
Marson P. “25 Key Books on Psychoanalysis.” Ural Ltd. - 1999
Freud, Sigmund. Collected works in 26 volumes. St. Petersburg, publishing house "VEIP", 2005 - ed. continues.
Paul FERRIS. "Sigmund Freud"

Links

Freud: his biography and teachings

I hate these hacks! - Freud growled, twirling a fresh copy of his latest biography in his hands. “I repeated a thousand times that the public has no right to my personal life!” I'll die - then please. And Zweig, too, wants, you see, to immortalize my life! I wrote to him: “Whoever becomes a biographer undertakes to lie, conceal, dissemble, embellish and hide his own misunderstanding.” Freud's biographers were perplexed: wow, what a deal. All my life I shamelessly delved into other people's lives, and here it is on you!

Who is he, this Viennese professor, who ascribed to all humanity the most base instincts from the point of view of this humanity? Who is he who supposedly proved that every man is attracted to his mother, and every woman subconsciously wants to share the bed with her father? Who were his parents and how did he deal with all this crap? Freud did not want to give answers to these questions, refusing audiences with potential biographers. He did not want to allow anyone into the basements of his own subconscious.

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the town of Freiberg, located near the border of Prussia and Poland. Five streets, two barbers, a dozen groceries and one funeral home. The town was located 240 km from Vienna and no aromas of the bustling metropolitan life reached there. Freud's father Jacob was a poor wool merchant. He recently married for the third time - to a girl old enough to be his daughter, who bore him children year after year. The firstborn was Sigmund. Jacob's new family lived in one, albeit quite spacious, room, rented in the house of a perpetually drunken tinsmith.

In October 1859, the completely impoverished Freuds set out in search of happiness in other cities. They settled first in Leipzig, then in Vienna. But Vienna did not provide material wealth either. “Poverty and misery, misery and extreme squalor,” - this is how Freud recalled his childhood. And also diligent study at the lyceum, success in languages, literature, especially ancient literature, philosophy, praise from teachers and hatred from peers, bringing the black-haired excellent student with heavy curls to tears. From his school years, he obviously took away a complex that was inconvenient for later life: a dislike of looking his interlocutor in the eyes.

Subsequently, as befits a poor Jewish youth, he became interested in politics and Marxism. His lyceum friend Heinrich Braun, who in 1883 founded Die Neue Zeit (the organ of the German Social Democratic Party) together with Kautsky and Liebkhnecht, invited him to collaborate. But Freud himself did not know what he wanted. At first he thought about studying law, then philosophy. As a result, wincing in disgust, he went into medicine - a typical field for a young man of his nationality at that time. The teachers treated him so-so. They did not like his inconsistency in hobbies, superficiality and focus on quickly and easily achieving success.

After graduating from medical school, Freud rushed to the Institute of Physiology, where he worked from 1876 to 1882. He received various scholarships and enthusiastically studied the genitals of eels and other similar creatures. “No one,” Freud fumed, “has ever seen the testicles of an eel.” “These were not the genitals of an eel, but the rudiments of psychoanalysis,” his psychoanalyst followers said in unison years later.

In 1884, Freud got tired of eels, fish and crustaceans, and he went to the laboratory of clinical psychiatry professor Meynert to study the brains of human fetuses, children, kittens and puppies. It was exciting, but not profitable. Freud wrote articles, even wrote a book on the then fashionable topic - aphasia, speech disorder in patients who had suffered a stroke, but - silence. Over the next 9 years, only 257 copies of the book were sold. No money, no fame.

And then there's love. One day on vacation, he saw a 21-year-old, fragile, pale, short girl of very refined manners - Martha Verney. Freud's courtship was peculiar. On August 2, 1882, a few months after they met, he writes to her: “I know that you are ugly in the sense that artists and sculptors understand it.” They quarrel and make peace, Freud stages violent scenes of jealousy, periods of nightmare are replaced by happy, rare months of agreement, but he cannot marry without money. In 1882, Freud entered the Vienna General Hospital as a student and received the post of assistant there a year later. Then he conducts paid classes for trainees there, but all this is mere pennies. The received title of private assistant professor in neuropathology also does not fundamentally change his position.

Best of the day

In 1884, there is finally hope of getting rich. Freud brings a then little-known alkaloid - cocaine - to Vienna from Merck and hopes to be the first to discover its properties. However, the discovery is made by his friends Königsten and Koller: Freud went to rest with his fiancée, entrusting them with starting the research, and by his arrival they manage not only to begin, but also to finish it. The world will learn a sensation: cocaine has a local analgesic effect. Freud repeats at every corner: “I am not offended by my fiancée for missing out on a happy occasion.” However, in his autobiography much later he writes: “Because of my engagement, I did not become famous in those young years.” And all the time he complains about poverty, slow-coming success, difficulties in winning people's favor, hypersensitivity, nerves, worries.

The next time Freud missed his chance in Paris, when he went to train with Dr. Charcot - the same one who invented the contrast shower. Charcot treated hysterics, and at the turn of the century there were more of them than mushrooms after rain. The women fainted in one impulse, could not see, hear or smell, wheezed, sobbed and committed suicide. This is where Freud hoped to show what he was capable of. Before leaving, he writes to his bride: “My little princess. I will come with money. I will become a great scientist and return to Vienna with a big, huge halo over my head, and we will get married right away.” But it was not possible to come with money. In Paris, Freud snorted cocaine, wandered the streets, drank absinthe, was outraged by the appearance of Parisian women (ugly, bow-legged, long-nosed), composing a global work at night. He said about his work in one of his letters: “Every night I fantasize, think, make guesses, stopping only when I reach complete absurdity and exhaustion.”

In general, things didn’t work out between Freud and Charcot. Charcot’s dark eyes, exuding an unusually soft look, looked more over the head of the young Freud, who without hesitation shared with his friends the idea that had become an obsession by that time: “Why am I worse than Charcot? Why can’t I be just as famous?” On Tuesdays, Charcot organized public sessions that fascinated Freud (a painting depicting such a session always hung in his office afterwards). A hysterical woman, who was having a fit, was brought into a hall packed to capacity with spectators, and Charcot cured her with hypnosis. Treatment is theater, Freud realized then. This is what the new clinical practice should look like.

The only thing Freud managed to get from Charcot was his works for translation into German. He translated several thick books on hypnosis, which he never managed to master.

The return to Vienna was painful. All hopes were dashed. He nevertheless got married, got into debt, and moved to a large apartment at Berggasse 19. His report on hysterical women, made as a result of his internship, caused deep boredom among the scientific fraternity. He could not continue his research; doctors did not allow Freud to see their patients. True, he was offered to manage the neuropathological service at the hospital institute, but he refused: although the position was good, it was almost free.

And Freud wanted money. There is only one way out - private practice. He advertises in newspapers: “I treat various types of nervous disorders.” Equipping one of the rooms in his apartment as an office. There are no clients yet. But Freud is sure that they will. He is waiting. And then the first ones appeared. Sent by doctor friends. How tiring it is to listen to their complaints for hours! They come and hang out in the office for half a day. And it’s not clear what to do with them.

What should I do with them, Martha, huh? - Freud is perplexed. “I don’t even have practice.” Maybe read a textbook?

A textbook - on electrotherapy - was brought by a university friend. Freud immediately sticks electrodes into the unfortunate patients. Results - zero. Trying hypnosis in the image and likeness of Charcot. Nothing works either. He doesn't like to look people in the eye - ever since his lyceum days. Then he invents a method of concentration, puts his hands or a finger on the patient’s forehead and begins to press and ask: what is bothering you, what, what? Then, out of desperation, she tries massages, baths, rest, diets, and enhanced nutrition. All in vain. He stopped touching patients with his hands and tormenting him with questions after 1896, when the sick Emma von N. complained that Freud was only bothering her.

After these failures, Freud came to his senses and tried to make the process of unsuccessful treatment comfortable, at least for himself. “I can’t be looked at for 8 hours a day,” he told Martha in the evenings. “And I can’t look patients in the eyes either.” A solution was found: place the patient on the couch and sit behind his head. Rationale: so that he relaxes and nothing bothers him. Another justification: so as not to see the doctor’s idiotic grimaces in response to the nonsense that he is talking about. The third justification: so that he feels the oppressive presence of the doctor. And no questions: let him say what he wants. This is the method of free association, revealing the subconscious. This is how the basic norms and dogmas of the new profession were born. Freud tried to adapt the practice and laws of psychoanalysis to suit himself. He talks about much of this on March 15 in a German medical journal, using the term “psychoanalysis” for the first time.

There is not enough money yet, but Freud feels that things are going well. He works a lot, writes books and articles, avoids idleness, smokes 20 cigars a day (this helps him concentrate). His office is already different: a sofa with an armchair at the head, coffee tables with antique figurines, a painting depicting Charcot's session, dim lighting. Gradually, Freud comes up with other details that provide comfort to the psychoanalyst. For example: a session should be expensive. “The fee for therapy,” says Freud, “must have a significant impact on the patient’s pocket, otherwise the therapy goes badly.” To prove this, he sees one free patient every week and then throws up his hands: the patient is not progressing at all (why they are not progressing is a separate topic and worthy of special theories, which Freud presented in an impeccably vivid literary form and for which he received the Goethe Prize for Literature in 1930) . In general, Freud charged a lot for his work. One session cost 40 crowns or 1 pound 13 shillings (that’s how much an expensive suit cost back then).

Gradually, Freud discovered the rest of the basics of the craft. For example, I limited the session time to 45 - 50 minutes. Many patients were ready to chat for hours and wanted to stay longer, but he kicked them out, explaining that time pressure was exactly what would help them get rid of their illness as quickly as possible. And finally, the last and most important, the basis is the principle of non-interference, lack of sympathy, indifference to the patient. Also to stimulate various beneficial processes. Another thing is clear: feeling sympathy is tiresome and unreasonable, and harmful to the doctor’s mental health. The practical instructions look like this: “The psychoanalyst should listen for a long time, not show a reaction, and only insert individual remarks from time to time. The psychoanalyst should not satisfy the patient with his assessments and advice.”

By the beginning of this century, Freud already understood that he had struck a gold mine. The spread of atheism recruited armies of clients for him. In his imagination, he clearly saw the marble plaques that would mark all the milestones of his great path, but the glory was late. “I am already 44 years old,” he writes in another letter to his friend Fliess, “and who am I? An old, poor Jew. Every Saturday I plunge into an orgy of card fortune-telling, and every second Tuesday I spend with my Jewish brothers.”

The turn to real fame and big money occurred on March 5, 1902, when Emperor Francois-Joseph I signed an official decree conferring the title of assistant professor on Sigmund Freud. The exalted public of the beginning of the century - ladies puffing on cigarettes and dreaming of suicide - poured towards him like a river. Freud worked 12-14 hours a day and was forced to call for help from two young associates Max Kahane and Rudolf Reitler. Others soon joined them. After some time, Freud regularly organized classes at his home on Wednesdays, which were called the Psychological Society of the Environment, and from 1908 - the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Decadent elite gathered here; meetings were led not only by doctors, but also by writers, musicians, poets, and publishers. All the talk about Freud's books, despite the fact that they sold poorly (a thousand copies of "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" were sold with difficulty in 4 years), only increased his fame. The more critics talked about obscenity, pornography, and an attack on morality, the more friendly the decadent generation came to see him.

An indicator of real glory was the honoring in 1922 by the University of London of five great geniuses of mankind - Philo, Memonides, Spinoza, Freud and Einstein. The Vienna house at Berggasse 19 was filled with celebrities, registrations for Freud's appointments came from different countries, and it seemed to be booked for many years in advance. He is invited to give lectures in the USA. They promise $10 thousand: patients in the morning, lectures in the afternoon. Freud calculates his expenses and answers: not enough, I will return tired and even poorer. The contract is revised in his favor.

However, the money and fame obtained at such a price were overshadowed by a serious illness: in April 1923 he was operated on for oral cancer. A terrible prosthesis and excruciating pain make life unbearable for the father of psychoanalysts. He has difficulty eating and speaking. Freud treats illness stoically, jokes a lot, writes articles about Thanatos - the god of death, builds a theory about the human attraction to death. Against this background, crazy fame only annoys him. For example, the famous Hollywood tycoon Samuel Goldwyn offered Sigmund Freud $100 thousand just to put his name in the credits of a film about the famous love stories of mankind. Freud writes him an angry letter of refusal. The same fate befell the German company UFA, which wanted to produce a film about psychoanalysis itself. In 1928, the movie “Secrets of the Soul” was released on European screens, in which Freud’s name was widely used in advertising. Freud creates a scandal and demands compensation.

The advent of fascism darkens his life even more. His books are publicly burned in Berlin, his beloved daughter Anna, who followed in his footsteps and headed the World Psychoanalytic Society, was captured by the Gestapo. Freud's family flees to London. By that time, Freud's health had become hopeless. And he determined his end himself: on September 23, 1939, Freud’s attending physician, at his request, administered a lethal dose of morphine.

Freud is a fool
proavanzzzzz 12.02.2006 08:33:12

Freud is an idiot! holding cocaine in his hands, he was unable to use it correctly! I would put the whole nation on it, and then treat them! Look, there would be no Nazism!

Freud
neo quincy 31.03.2006 09:37:12

Excellent article So much about Freud Even I didn’t know Well done guys! (Historian)

Freud
Onikoua 19.05.2006 06:07:03

Sigmund is the person without whom humanity would not be what it is today...

Freud
Slavic Slavutici 25.07.2006 07:50:33

The human soul is the most interesting object to study. Many people don’t understand how different we are. I hate templates. Freud’s work is very interesting to me. Respect to you and may you rest in peace.

Freud was born in Freiberg (Moravia) on May 6, 1856. In his youth he was interested in philosophy and other humanities, but constantly felt the need to study the natural sciences. He entered the medical faculty of the University of Vienna, where he received his doctorate in medicine in 1881, and became a doctor at the Vienna Hospital. In 1884 he joined Joseph Breuer, one of the leading Viennese doctors, who was conducting research on hysterical patients using hypnosis. In 1885–1886 he worked with the French neurologist Jean Martin Charcot at the Salpêtrière clinic in Paris. Upon returning to Vienna, he began private practice. In 1902, Freud's work had already received recognition, and he was appointed professor of neuropathology at the University of Vienna; He held this post until 1938. In 1938, after the Nazis captured Austria, he was forced to leave Vienna. The escape from Vienna and the opportunity to temporarily settle in London were organized by the English psychiatrist Ernst Jones, the Greek princess Mary Bonaparte and the United States Ambassador to France William Bullitt.

Psychoanalysis

In 1882, Freud began treating Bertha Pappenheim (referred to in his books as Anna O.), who had previously been a patient of Breuer. Her varied hysterical symptoms provided Freud with enormous material for analysis. The first important phenomenon was the deeply hidden memories that broke through during hypnosis sessions. Breuer suggested that they are associated with states in which consciousness is reduced. Freud believed that such a disappearance from the field of action of ordinary associative connections (field of consciousness) is the result of a process that he called repression; memories are locked in what he called the “unconscious”, where they were “sent” by the conscious part of the psyche. An important function of repression is to protect the individual from the influence of negative memories. Freud also suggested that the process of becoming aware of old and forgotten memories brings relief, albeit temporary, expressed in the relief of hysterical symptoms.

At first, Freud, like Breuer, used hypnosis to release repressed memories, and later replaced it with the so-called technique. free association, in which the patient was allowed to say whatever came to mind. Having proposed the concept of the unconscious, the theory of defense and the concept of repression, Freud began to develop a new method, which he called psychoanalysis.

In the process of this work, Freud expanded the range of data required to include dreams, i.e. mental activity that occurs in a state of reduced consciousness called sleep. Studying his own dreams, he observed what he had already deduced from the phenomenon of hysteria - many mental processes never reach consciousness and are removed from associative connections with the rest of experience. By comparing the manifest content of dreams with free associations, Freud discovered their hidden or unconscious content and described a number of adaptive mental techniques that correlate the manifest content of dreams with their hidden meaning. Some of them resemble condensation, when several events or characters merge into one image. Another technique, in which the motives of the dreamer are transferred to someone else, causes a distortion of perception - so, “I hate you” turns into “you hate me.” Of great importance is the fact that mechanisms of this kind represent intrapsychic maneuvers that effectively change the entire organization of perception, on which both motivation and activity itself depend.

Freud then moved on to the problem of neuroses. He came to the conclusion that the main area of repression is the sexual sphere and that repression occurs as a result of real or imagined sexual trauma. Freud attached great importance to the factor of predisposition, which manifests itself in connection with traumatic experiences received during the period of development and changing its normal course.

The search for the causes of neurosis led to Freud's most controversial theory - the theory of libido. The libido theory explains the development and synthesis of the sexual instinct in its preparation for reproductive function, and also interprets the corresponding energetic changes. Freud distinguished a number of stages of development - oral, anal and genital. A variety of developmental difficulties can prevent a person from reaching maturity, or the genital phase, leaving him stuck in the oral or anal stages. This assumption was based on the study of normal development, sexual deviations and neuroses.

In 1921, Freud modified his theory, taking as a basis the idea of two opposing instincts - the desire for life (eros) and the desire for death (thanatos). This theory, in addition to its low clinical value, has given rise to an incredible number of interpretations.

The theory of libido was then applied to the study of character formation (1908) and, together with the theory of narcissism, to the explanation of schizophrenia (1912). In 1921, largely to refute Adler's concepts, Freud described a number of applications of libido theory to the study of cultural phenomena. He then tried to use the concept of libido as the energy of the sexual instinct to explain the dynamics of such social institutions as the army and the church, which, being non-hereditary hierarchical systems, differ in a number of important respects from other social institutions.

In 1923, Freud attempted to develop the concept of libido by describing the structure of the personality in terms of the "Id" or "Id" (the original reservoir of energy, or the unconscious), the "I" or "Ego" (that side of the "Id" that comes into contact with with the outside world) and the “Super-I”, or “Super-Ego” (conscience). Three years later, largely under the influence of Otto Rank, who was one of his earliest followers, Freud revised the theory of neuroses so that it was again closer to his earlier concepts; now he characterized the “Ego” as the leading apparatus of adaptation and reworked the very understanding of the general structure of neurotic phenomena.

By 1908, Freud had followers all over the world, which allowed him to organize the 1st International Congress of Psychoanalysts. In 1911 the New York Psychoanalytic Society was founded. The rapid spread of the movement gave it not so much a scientific, but a completely religious character. Freud's influence on modern culture is truly enormous. Although it has declined in Europe, psychoanalysis remains the main psychiatric method used in the US and (to a lesser extent) the UK.

In the United States, psychoanalysis had a significant influence on literature and theater, especially on the works of such famous authors as Eugene O'Neill and Tennessee Williams. Psychoanalysis inadvertently promoted the idea that all repression and suppression should be avoided lest it lead to an "explosion" steam boiler,” and that education should under no circumstances resort to prohibitions and coercion.

Although Freud's observations and theories have always been the subject of debate and often contested, there is no doubt that he made enormous and original contributions to ideas about the nature of the human psyche.

Freud's most famous works

Research hysteria (Studien über Hysterie, 1895), together with Breuer;
Dream interpretation(Die Traumdeutung, 1900);
Psychopathology of everyday life (Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens, 1901);
Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis (Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse, 1916–1917);
Totem and taboo (Totem und Tabu, 1913);
Leonardo da Vinci (Leonardo da Vinci, 1910);
Me and It (Das Ich und das Es, 1923);
Civilization and its dissatisfied (Das Unbehagen in der Kultur, 1930);
New lectures on introduction to psychoanalysis (Neue Folge der Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse, 1933);
The Man Called Moses and Monotheistic Religion (Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion, 1939).

Alexander/ 01/8/2019 erfolg.ru/erfolg/v_vyasmin.htm
An article by Vadim Vyazmin: Painting, Psychoanalysis and the Golden Game is available at this link.
“Sigmund Freud is a great feat of one, individual person! - made humanity more conscious; I'm talking more conscious, not happier. He deepened the picture of the world for an entire generation, I say deepened, not embellished. For the radical never gives happiness, it brings with it only certainty” (Stefan Zweig).

Anna/ 03/06/2016 I advise everyone who is tormented by mental problems to read dissatisfaction with culture several times. Especially the last three chapters. This is the solution to all your problems.

Reader1989/ 01/19/2016 Freud, Jung, Adler, Fromm, like many other people, felt other people’s mood (good or bad), will, and mind. But everyone described these qualities in their own way.
Each of them adjusted the facts to their own theory and interpreted the facts in their own way. On the contrary, it is necessary that the theory be created on the basis of facts, so that the theory logically, clearly, clearly, and consistently describes the facts.
I don't want to say that they were bad psychologists. Each of them was right in some way (or maybe in many ways). But still there is too much subjectivity.
They (even Freud and Adler) could describe any action or character of a person in mutually exclusive ways. This means that at least one of them is wrong. This also applies to other psychologists.

Sad/ 01/07/2016 Freud was a member of the Masonic Jewish community... Freud's views on people. nature in many ways do not combine with information from the books of Bekhtereva Natalya Petrovna - Soviet and Russian neurophysiologist. Academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (1975). Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1981). Since 1990 - scientific director of the Brain Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences

doChtor/ 01/05/2016 Freud only said that the psychic energy of a person is of sexual origin and therefore sexually colored, but it serves not only sexual purposes, but in general all the goals of a person in society. This is the essence of sublimation. This is the destiny of all instincts in the atmosphere of society. Not only in humans, but in animals. All instincts are deprived to a certain extent of their individual purpose and are forced to serve the interests of a society of people or a pack. " ------ - question: if creativity, etc. is sublimation, that we are driven by hormones, then how to justify creativity in young children, creativity in those who were born without ovaries and testicles (this happens)?)) I advise you to read with the more scientific work of sociobiologists such as M. Bowen - one of the few who have beautifully explained human behavior from a scientific point of view (with all due respect to the largely subjective work of Freud)

And Freud does not need to be “defended”; let the truth (if it exists) prove itself in the form of a scientific experiment. Freud wrote well, but if he were understood correctly (without taking phrases out of context) many of his adherents would simply leave him, because... Freud was by no means a proponent of sex; he positioned himself as quite emotionally restrained in this regard, extremely subject to the morality of bourgeois society.

question/ 01/05/2016 learn biology better)) Much of Freud and others is purely subjective. The WHO currently recommends a behavioral approach. Still, there must be some objective evidence))

/ 11/19/2015 You guys have nothing to do. And this is the worst thing

/ 10/8/2015 Thanks to Freud, I realized a long time ago that all our emotions and behavior are deeply sexual. We cannot deny what is inherent in us by nature, no matter how much we disagree with it.

Guest/ 08/15/2015 no matter what anyone throws at Freud, the basics of his teaching are very significant, in particular, the components of the psyche (id, ego and supoego), and his statement regarding the existence of a supernatural mind (god) really pleased me: people are afraid of non-existence and therefore, in order to sweeten the bitterness of death, I invented bullshit about eternal life, about heaven and hell and other crap... remember from Gogol: the Pipels want a miracle and I can give it to them, because I have traveled a lot and know how to create a new religion... - > i.e. rule the stupid herd of ignoramuses, hehe

Valera/ 3.11.2014 Sigmund Freud - I and It (audio book)
http://turbobit.net/6rncs5r51pl8.html

Guest/ 3.11.2014 audio options
Essay on the history of psychoanalysis http://turbobit.net/zhm0gfctnrxx.html

Introduction to Psychoanalysis
http://turbobit.net/o625zzasovlh.html

Dissatisfaction with culture
http://turbobit.net/0ff4wrh2ukdc.html

Psychology religion culture
http://turbobit.net/5c4btrz6o935.html

Psychopathology of everyday life
http://turbobit.net/pk2cgcporvwn.html

Anna Aleksandrovna/ 04/01/2014 Freud is one of the best psychologists....Very interesting books!

Lyokha/ 01/16/2014 I realized that Freud’s books are some of the best and help you understand not only yourself but also those to whom you want to provide invaluable help. How many books on psychology have I read and Freud helps you look at the “bottom of the Ocean” and not just float on the surface of a drop of the ocean ...

Maria/ 12/9/2013 he did not live in the UK from 1938, but in the USA

Disappointed optimist/ 10/20/2013 Dear Doctor, I am concerned about a different kind of problem...why do people want to be psychotherapists...is it really out of love for humanity and the masses? Perhaps they just like to push some buttons in people and enjoy secret power or simply rejoice in the fact that someone has even more problems than they do. Agree, the coolest way to make money. haha. Doctor, I see that you have a great future. You need to get on the big air, and there you can promote Freud, as well as the correct pronunciation. Why stoop to squabbles on a site where almost no one can hear you? Professionals don't mess with amateurs. Well, I don’t know about you in Paris, but here in Washington it’s a wonderful autumn day. No respect.