Read a short history of Alexander the Great. Brief biography of Alexander the Great
The life of Alexander the Great is the story of how one man with a small army conquered almost the entire known world. His soldiers saw him as a military genius; his enemies called him damned. He himself considered himself a god.
Noble origin
Alexander the Great was born in July 356 BC from the marriage of the Macedonian king Philip and one of his many queens, Olympias. But he could boast of more famous ancestors. According to dynastic legend, on his father’s side he was descended from Hercules, the son of Zeus, and on his mother’s side he was a direct descendant of the famous Achilles, the hero of Homer’s Iliad. The Olympics itself also became famous for being a constant participant in religious orgies in honor of Dionysus.
Plutarch wrote about her: “The Olympiad was more zealously committed to these sacraments than others and went on a rampage in a completely barbaric manner.” Sources tell us that during the processions she carried two tame snakes in her hands. The queen's excessive love for reptiles and the cold attitude between her and her husband gave rise to rumors that Alexander's real father was not the Macedonian king at all, but Zeus himself, who took the form of a snake.
City for Science
Alexander was seen as a talented child from childhood; he was prepared for the throne from an early age. Aristotle, who was close to the royal court, was appointed mentor to the future Macedonian king. To pay for his son’s education, Philip II restored the city of Stragira, where Aristotle was from, which he himself had destroyed, and returned the citizens who had fled and were in slavery there.
Invincible and vain
Since his first victory at age 18, Alexander the Great has never lost a battle. His military successes brought him to Afghanistan and Kyrgyzstan, to Cyrenaica and India, to the territories of the Massagetae and Albania. He was the pharaoh of Egypt, king of Persia, Syria and Lydia.
Alexander led his warriors, each of whom he knew by sight, with impressive speed, overtaking his enemies by surprise, even before the latter were ready for battle. The central place of Alexander's fighting force was occupied by the 15,000-strong Macedonian phalanx, whose warriors marched against the Persians with 5-meter peaks - sarissas. Throughout his military career, Alexander founded more than 70 cities, which he ordered to be named in his honor, and one in honor of his horse - Bucephalus, which exists to this day, however, under the name Jalalpur in Pakistan.
Become a god
Alexander's vanity was the flip side of his greatness. He dreamed of divine status. Having founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt in the Nile Delta, he went on a long journey to the oasis of Siwa in the desert, to the priests of the Egyptian supreme god Amon-Ra, who was likened to the Greek Zeus. According to the plan, the priests were supposed to recognize him as a descendant of god. History is silent about what the deity “told” him through the mouths of his servants, but supposedly it confirmed Alexander’s divine origin.
True, Plutarch subsequently gave the following curious interpretation of this episode: the Egyptian priest who received Alexander told him in Greek “paidion”, which means “child”. But as a result of bad pronunciation, it turned out to be “Pai Dios,” that is, “son of God.”
One way or another, Alexander was pleased with the answer. Having declared himself a god in Egypt with the “blessing” of a priest, he decided to become a god for the Greeks. In one of his letters to Aristotle, he asked the latter to argue to the Greeks and Macedonians for his divine essence: “dear teacher, now I ask you, my wise friend and mentor, to philosophically justify and convincingly motivate the Greeks and Macedonians to declare me god. By doing this, I am acting as a self-responsible politician and statesman.” However, his cult did not take root in Alexander’s homeland.
There was, of course, a political calculation behind Alexander’s manic desire to become a god for his subjects. Divine authority greatly simplified the management of his fragile empire, which was divided among sartraps (governors). But the personal factor also played an important role. In all the cities founded by Alexander, he was to be given honor on a par with the gods. In addition, his superhuman desire to conquer the whole world and unite Europe and Asia, which literally took possession of him in the last months of his life, suggests that he himself believed in the legend he created, considering himself more of a god than a man.
The mystery of Alexander's death
Death overtook Alexander in the midst of his grandiose plans. Despite his lifestyle, he died not during the battle, but on his bed, preparing for another campaign, this time against Carthage. At the beginning of June 323 BC. e., the king suddenly developed a severe fever. On June 7, he could no longer speak, and three days later he died in the prime of his life, at the age of 32. The reason for Alexander’s sudden death still remains one of the most important mysteries of the ancient world.
The Persians, whom he mercilessly defeated, claimed that the commander was punished by heaven for desecrating the tomb of King Cyrus. The Macedonians who returned home said that the great commander died of drunkenness and debauchery (sources brought to us information about his 360 concubines). Roman historians believed that he was poisoned with some kind of slow-acting Asian poison. The main argument in favor of this version is considered to be the poor health of Alexander, who, returning from India, allegedly often fainted, lost his voice and suffered from muscle weakness and vomiting. In 2013, British scientists in the journal Clinical Toxicology put forward a version that Alexander was poisoned with a drug made from a poisonous plant, White Cheremitsa, used by Greek doctors to induce vomiting. The most common version says that Alexander suffered from malaria.
Looking for Alexander
It is still unknown where Alexander is buried. Immediately after his death, the division of his empire began between his closest associates. In order not to waste time on a lavish funeral, Alexander was temporarily buried in Babylon. Two years later it was dug up to transport the remains to Macedonia. But on the way, the funeral cortege was attacked by Alexander’s half-brother, Ptolemy, who took the “trophy” by force and bribery and transported it to Memphis, where he buried it near one of the temples of Amon. But apparently Alexander was not destined to find peace.
Two years later, the new tomb was opened and transported with all appropriate honors to Alexandria. There the body was re-embalmed, placed in a new sarcophagus and installed in a mausoleum in the central square.
The next time Alexander's sleep was apparently disturbed by the first Christians, for whom he was the “king of the pagans.” Some historians believe that the sarcophagus was stolen and buried somewhere on the outskirts of the city. Then the Arabs poured into Egypt and erected a mosque on the site of the mausoleum. At this point, traces of the burial are completely lost; Muslims did not allow anyone into Alexandria for many centuries.
Today there are many versions about the tomb of Alexander the Great. A Persian legend from the beginning of the century says that Alexander remained in the lands of Babylon; The Macedonian claims that the body was taken to the ancient capital of Aegean, where Alexander was born. In the 20th century, archaeologists were “close” countless times to solving the mystery of Alexander’s final refuge - they looked for him in the dungeons of Alexandria, in the oasis of Sivi, in the ancient city of Amphipolis, but so far everything was in vain. However, scientists are not giving up. In the end, the game is worth the candle - according to one version, he was buried in a sarcophagus made of pure gold, along with numerous trophies from Asia and manuscripts from the legendary Library of Alexandria.
Known for his ambitions for conquest, Alexander the Great took his place in history as a great ancient Hellenic commander and conqueror.
Over 10 years of military campaigns, he conquered more than half of the lands known at that time and did not suffer a single defeat in battle!
short biography
Alexander the Great (name - AlexanderIII; nickname - "Great") born July 20-21, 356 BC in Macedonia. His father - PhilipII, was the current king of Macedonia. His mother - Olympics, daughter of the king of Epirus.
It is known that at the age of 7 the boy began to be taught the art of war and various sciences. Alexander showed no interest in philosophy and mathematics. But in horse riding and archery, as well as some other physical and military sciences he had no equal.
Aristotle's student
One of the teachers of young Alexander the Great was Aristotle- famous and wisest ancient Greek philosopher. Thanks to his teacher's stories about the Universe and its many riches and wonders, the boy began to dream of conquering new lands.
After another news that his father Philip had defeated another enemy and conquered the city, AlexanderIII became sad and said: “At this rate, there will be nothing left for me...”
Young commander
At the age of 16, Alexander underwent his first baptism of fire during a battle with the Athenians. His command of the cavalry decided the outcome of the battle in favor of the Macedonians and earned the young commander the nickname "Great". Philip's soldiers praised him!
The father was pleased with his son’s first practical experience, and from that moment on, young Alexander began to closely study military science: the basics of combat, the peculiarities of actions phalanx- a combat unit of the Macedonians, which made their numerical minority unimportant in battles with enemies.
King of Macedonia
When Alexander turned 20 years old, his father was treacherously killed by one of his close associates. The time has come to accept the royal throne and government. Alexander the Great did not participate in internal government, but he actively and fruitfully showed himself as a commander and invader, first of neighboring cities, and later of neighboring and distant lands.
There is a legend that during the siege of Athens, the main commander of the Greeks came to the Macedonian Phocion and said the following words:
“Why do you fight against your fellow tribesmen, against the Hellenes? You strive for fame and riches, so go to Asia and fight against the barbarians. There you will win wealth, achieve military glory, and among the Greeks you will become famous for your kindness.”
The Macedonian took advantage of the wise advice of the Greek commander, retreated from Athens and directed his 40 thousandth army(according to some sources, there were about 50 thousand soldiers) on a campaign to the lands of Asia, Persia, and Egypt.
Pharaoh of Egypt
Having crossed the Hellespont, Alexander and his army took the first fight with the Persian army near Troy, on the Granik River.
The Persian army was defeated by a talented commander from Macedonia. After this, many Persian cities surrendered to the young king without a fight.
In 332 BC. The Macedonian entered Egypt without any resistance and became his Pharaoh. By that time, almost all the military power of the Egyptians was in Asia Minor.
King of Asia
After strengthening his position in Egyptian lands and building the city of Alexandria, Macedonian decides to delve deeper into Asian lands. By that time DariusIII, the Persian king, managed to gather a large army for a new battle with Alexander.
October 1, 331 BC e. a great battle took place at Gaugamelah, during which the troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were defeated. Darius once again fled from the battlefield, which further reduced his authority.
After this battle, the satraps of many Persian lands began to call the conqueror Alexander King of Asia and they opened the gates for him without a fight.
Persian king
Next, Alexander moved to the south, where the ancient Babylon And Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, opened their gates to him. The Persian satraps, having lost faith in Darius, began to serve the King of Asia.
From Susa, Alexander went through mountain passages to Persepolis, the center of the original Persian land. After an unsuccessful attempt to break out on the move, Alexander and part of his army bypassed the troops of the satrap of Persia, Ariobarzanes, and in January 330 BC e. Persepolis fell.
The Macedonian army rested in the city until the end of spring, and before leaving, the palace of the Persian kings was burned.
According to the famous legend, the fire was organized by the hetaera Thais of Athens, the mistress of the military leader Ptolemy, inciting the drunken company of Alexander and his friends.
IN May 330 BC e. Alexander resumed his pursuit of Darius, first in Media and then in Parthia. In July 330 BC. e. King Darius was killed as a result of a conspiracy by his military leaders. Bactrian satrap Bess, who killed Darius, named himself the new king of the Persian Empire. Bess tried to organize resistance in the eastern satrapies, but was captured by his comrades, handed over to Alexander and executed by him in June 329 BC. e.
Trek to India
After the victory over the Persians, Alexander the Great did not return to his native land, but moved to India. In the battle he defeated the army of the Indian king Porus and wanted to reach World Ocean. But then his army rebelled.
The Macedonians did not want to fight anymore, they demanded a return to their homeland, accusing their king of an excessive thirst for wealth and glory. I had to give in to him. He had grandiose plans, he wanted to conquer the whole world, he thought of building a road through the Sahara desert, digging wells along it and much more.
Death of Alexander "The Great"
Upon returning to Babylon, Alexander soon fell ill with a fever. The disease progressed, the Great Commander fought it for 10 days, but June 13, 323 BC Alexander the Great died.
His body was transported to Alexandria, where he was buried with great honors in a golden coffin.
People are legends. Ancient world
Having ascended the throne of Macedonia at twenty, Alexander conquered the Persian Empire at twenty-five, part of India at thirty, and died in Babylon three years later. His life turned out to be very short: it was only enough to create a power, the greatest of all that had previously existed. However, there have turned out to be negligibly few people in world history who are “only” capable of doing this.
Alexander the Great on a fragment of an ancient Roman mosaic from Pompeii, a copy of an ancient Greek painting
Heir to Philip II
Alexander III, known as the Great (Macedonian) (356-323 BC), king of Macedonia, was the son of Philip II from the Argead family, for Alexander’s paternal ancestors were from Argos, where Hercules once ruled, on the basis of which the Argeads deduced their belonging to the Heraclides, and the Epirus princess Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus; the father had the gift of an outstanding practitioner, leader and organizer, the mother was a woman with an unbridled temperament, strange, mysterious, prone to hallucinations and inspiring superstitious fear in others; and Alexander himself stands out among people of action for the brilliance of his imagination that led him through life, and among romantic dreamers for what he achieved. He was born in Pella in 356 BC. Historians are still arguing about the exact date of birth - some believe that Alexander was born in July (July 22), others suggest that around October. The royal court, where he grew up, was a center of intense activity, for Philip, through wars and diplomacy, sought to place Macedonia at the head of the Greek city-states, and the atmosphere of the royal palace was literally saturated with plans and ideas. The unification of the Greek people in the war against the Persian Empire became a global goal for Hellenic ambition, a constant theme of idealistic philosophers.
Philip II, father of Alexander (golden bas-relief)
Two people had a great influence on the formation of his worldview and character in childhood. Firstly, his mentor Lysimachus, who instilled in Alexander a love for Homer and instilled in him the idea of the identity of the destinies of Alexander and his maternal ancestor Achilles. The second person whom Alexander called his mentor was Leonid, who raised the prince in the Spartan spirit and taught him various military sciences.
Greek achievements in the fields of literature, philosophy, history of the 5th century had already faded enough into the vulgar to bear the stamp of classical nobility: thus the meaning of Hellenistic civilization was given a new kind of concreteness that could evoke an enthusiastic attitude towards the system of ideal values sanctified by tradition. And when Alexander was fourteen years old, in 343-342 BC. e., Aristotle arrived in Pella at the invitation of Philip to supervise the education of his son. We do not know how this outstanding mind was able to master the ardent spirit of young Alexander; in any case, Alexander carried an ardent, passionate love for Homer throughout his entire life. But he received his education not only from books. A visit to Pella by ambassadors from many countries, Greek and Eastern, gave him additional information about the actual state of the world. He was trained early in military affairs. At the age of 16, he ruled in Macedonia in Philip's absence and suppressed a revolt of the mountain tribes on the northern border; the following year (338), he led an attack on the “Sacred Ribbon” (a selected detachment of heavily armed warriors of the city of Thebes) at the Battle of Chaeronea and defeated it.
Olympias, mother of Alexander (golden bas-relief)
Then came the turn of family discord, which usually plagues the polygamous royal houses of the East. In 337, Philip left Olympias and took another wife, Cleopatra. Alexander went with his mother to her homeland in Epirus. And although he soon returned, and external reconciliation between father and son was achieved, internally, alienation arose between them. The new wife became pregnant, her relatives became increasingly important; There was a threat to Alexander's right as heir to the throne. Negotiations with Pixodarus, the satrap of Caria, begun at the Macedonian court with the goal of linking both houses by marriage, pushed Alexander into new quarrels with his father. But…
In 336, in Aigae, in the presence of guests who had come from all over Greece to celebrate the marriage of his daughter to Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was unexpectedly killed. It is clear that the killer’s hand was directed by someone from the royal entourage; among others, Alexander could not escape suspicion, but this kind of guilt hardly corresponded to his character, as it appeared in those early years of his youth.
Accession to the throne
Alexander was not the only contender for the empty throne, but, having received recognition and support from the army, he soon swept away all his rivals. The newborn son of Philip and Cleopatra and Alexander's cousin Amyntas are put to death, and Alexander takes up the interrupted labors of his father. These deeds stood on the threshold of the discovery of their most brilliant glory - the invasion of the possessions of the great Persian king. A powerful army was assembled from the united Greek forces, and part of it had already set off to cross the Hellespont to the Asia Minor coast and seize a bridgehead for a further invasion of Persia. The assassination of Philip delayed the strike, since it immediately deprived the army's main base, Macedonia, of reliability, and in such an enterprise, associated with deepening into the vast territories of the Persian Empire, the reliability of the rear was everything.
The removal of Philip was a reason for all the mountain peoples of the north and west to raise their heads, and for the Greek states to free themselves from their fears.
The show of force in Greece, led by the new king of Macedonia, instantly sobered up the hotheads, and at the council in Corinth, Alexander was recognized as the commander-in-chief of the army of the Hellenistic world in the fight against the barbarians, in place of his father Philip. In the spring of 335, he walked from Macedonia to the north, crossed the Balkans and, having defeated the mountain tribes, put an end to the war with them. His army showed unprecedented skill and discipline. He then walked through the land of the Triballi (Rumelia) to the Danube and brought these tribes into submission. Satisfying his own craving for the unusual and wanting to capture the imagination of the whole world, he crossed to the other side of the Danube (from the point of view of the military art of that time, this was an incredibly difficult technical task) and burned the fortified city of the Getae. Meanwhile, the Illyrians rebelled against Macedonian rule and captured the city of Pelias, which commanded the mountain passes west of Macedonia. Alexander and his army marched directly through the mountains, defeated the Illyrians and restored the prestige and power of Macedonia in the region. At this time, news came to him that there was unrest in Greece, and Thebes had taken up arms. By a forced march, bringing his entire army under the walls of the city, he took the Thebans by surprise. And a few days later the city, which a generation ago occupied a dominant position in Greece, was taken. Now no half-measures were followed by Alexander: the city was destroyed to the ground, with the exception of the temples and the house where the great Greek poet Pindar once lived. Now one could believe and hope that for some time the stunned Greeks would not cause trouble to the Macedonian king. The activities of the Panhellenic (Panhellenic) Union, which was still ignored by Sparta, resumed against the barbarians. Alexander treated Athens with invariably great respect, although, as is known, they did not like the power of Macedonia and they often stood behind Alexander’s numerous troubles.
Invasion of Asia Minor
In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed into Asia with an army consisting of Macedonians, Illyrians, Thracians and contingents of the Greek states - a total of 30,000-40,000 people. The city of Abydos on the Hellespont became the headquarters of the army. Alexander himself, having crossed, first visited the place where ancient Troy stood, and there he made sacrifices to Athena of Ilium, took himself a shield, which, according to legend, belonged to Achilles. And he left offerings to the great dead of Homer’s legends - this eloquently testifies to the fact that in the soul of the young king this whole enterprise was presented in poetic splendor, which people will subsequently appreciate differently, in accordance with the role they assign to the imagination in human affairs.
To meet the invader, the great Persian king in Asia Minor had an army not much larger than that of Alexander, assembled under the command of the satraps of the western provinces at the city of Zeleia. Under their command there was also a detachment of Greek mercenaries - professional warriors, and they posed a much more serious threat to the army of the Macedonian king than the rest of the Persian forces. Alexander could only communicate with Macedonia, that is, with his base, through the bottleneck of the Hellespont, and by moving away from it he risked being completely cut off from his rear, his reserves. For the Persian military leaders, a reasonable strategy would be to lure the Greek army with them into the interior of the country, avoiding for the time being a direct confrontation, as the commander of the Greek mercenaries, the Rhodian Memnon, insisted on. The code of honor of the Persian nobility, or not taking the enemy seriously, prevented the Persians from adopting this strategy, and Alexander found them waiting for his army on the banks of the Granicus River. It was largely a mounted battle in which a common code of honor forced the Macedonians and Persians into hand-to-hand combat, and at the end of the day the remnants of the Persian army fled, leaving the great roads of Asia Minor open to the invader. Now Alexander could carry out the first part of his plan as commander-in-chief of the Hellenes for the liberation of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, which the enthusiasts of panhellenism had publicly demanded for so long: Alexander moved to the old Lydian capital of Sardis, the seat of the Persian governor on this side of the Taurus, and the strong city surrendered without a fight. After this, in all the Greek cities of Aeolia and Ionia, the governments of oligarchs and tyrants friendly to Persia fell and democratic orders were established under the supervision of the commanders of the troops of the Macedonian king. Only where the cities were defended by garrisons in the service of Persia, and were manned mainly by Greek mercenaries, could the liberator expect the likelihood of resistance. In fact, the garrison fled from Ephesus only after learning of the defeat on the Granicus; however, Miletus had to besieged. The Persian fleet tried in vain to lift the siege from the city, and Miletus could not resist the storming Macedonian army for long. Only in Halicarnassus did Alexander first encounter stubborn resistance, where Memnon and the satrap of Caria gathered all the ground forces that Persia still had in the west. With the onset of winter, Alexander captured the city itself, but its two fortified citadels withstood the siege for a long time.
Meanwhile, the Macedonian king made it clear that he had come here not simply to take revenge on the Persians, not simply to wage a punitive war, but to become king of Persia. He appointed Macedonian governors to the conquered provinces, and in Caria he returned power to the princess of the local dynasty, Ada, who accepted him as a son. In the winter, while Parmenion, his deputy as commander-in-chief, advanced across the central plateau, subjugating the province of Phrygia, Alexander passed along the seashore, where the Lycians surrendered to him and the Greek cities of coastal Pamphylia swore allegiance to him. The mountains in the interior of the mainland were the habitat of warlike tribes, which the Persian authorities were never able to subjugate. Alexander did not have time to conquer them, but he stormed some of their fortresses to keep them under control and marched throughout their territory, after which he turned north from Pamphylia inland.
In the spring of 333, he took the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of the Climax Mountains thanks to a timely change in the wind. The drop in sea level during this passage, as a result of which Alexander was able to pass this way, was interpreted by Alexander's flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes, as a sign of divine mercy. Having passed Perga, he came to Gordium, a Phrygian city, where he solved the famous problem with the Gordian knot, which could only be untied by the future ruler of Asia; Alexander cut him with his sword. Here he received news of the death of Memnon, a talented Persian commander and commander of their fleet. Alexander immediately capitalized on this news and, leaving Gordium, quickly moved to Ancyra, and from there south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gate. In Cilicia he was detained for a while by a fever. Meanwhile, Darius with his huge army approached the eastern side of the Aman Mountains. Intelligence on both sides was wrong, and Alexander had already set up camp when he learned that Darius was on his rear lines of communications at Issus. Turning immediately to meet Darius, Alexander found his army stretched along the Pinar River. Here Alexander won a decisive victory. The Persians were defeated, Darius fled, leaving his family in the hands of Alexander.
Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt
From Issus, Alexander moved south into Syria and Phenicia, capturing coastal cities with the goal of isolating, depriving the Persian fleet of its bases and then destroying this serious fighting force. The Phoenician cities of Marathus and Arad calmly submitted, and Parmenion was sent forward so that the rich booty in Damascus, where part of Darius's treasures intended for warfare, the so-called war chest, was kept. In response to Darius's letter, where he proposed peace and division of Persia, Alexander responded arrogantly, listing all the past troubles of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to him as the master of Asia. Having taken the cities of Byblos and Sidon, he got stuck at the island city of Tire, which closed its gates to him. To take it, he used afloat siege techniques, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. Meanwhile (in the winter of 333/332), the Persians launched a series of counterattacks on land in Asia Minor, but were defeated by Antigonus, Alexander's general and governor of Greater Phrygia. Luck accompanied the Greeks at sea, where they regained a number of cities and islands.
While the siege of Tire continued, Darius sent a letter with a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of ten thousand talents for his family and cede to Alexander all his lands west of the Euphrates. Parmenion is said to have said: “I would agree if I were Alexander.” “I would too,” came Alexander’s famous reply, “if I were Parmenion.” The storming of Tire in July 332 was Alexander's greatest achievement; it was followed by great massacres and the sale of the remaining inhabitants, mostly women and children, into slavery. Leaving Parmenion in Syria, Alexander moved north unopposed until he approached Gaza. The city stood on a high hill. Fierce resistance detained him here for two months, and during an enemy sortie he received a serious wound in the shoulder.
In November 332 he came to Egypt. The people greeted him as a liberator, and the Persian satrap Mazak chose to surrender. In Memphis, Alexander sacrificed to the sacred bull of the Egyptians, Apis, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; as a result, the local priests were pacified, and their religion received support from the power of the Macedonian king. He spent the winter busy with the administrative structure of Egypt, appointing provincial governors from the local nobility, but keeping army detachments in the cities in constant readiness under the command of loyal Macedonians. He founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile, and also sent an expedition to the upper reaches of the river to find out the reasons for the constant summer flood of the Nile. From Alexandria he went to Paretonium, and from there with a small detachment to visit the Siut oasis, where the famous oracle of the god Amun was located. The priests of Amun greeted Alexander with the traditional greeting as Pharaoh, the son of Amun. Alexander asked the soothsayer a number of questions about the success of his campaign, but did not receive an answer to any of them. However, I still used this visit to great benefit for myself. Later, this incident contributed to the story that he was recognized as the son of Zeus, and thereby his “deification.” In the spring of 331, he returned to Tyre, appointed the noble Macedonian Asklepiodorus as governor of Syria, and prepared to march deep into the Persian state, into Mesopotamia. With the conquest of Egypt, his power along the entire eastern coast of the Mediterranean was no longer threatened; she was full.
From Gaugamela to the death of Darius
In July 331, Alexander was in Thapsacus, on the Euphrates River. Instead of taking a direct route down the river to Babylon, he chose the route through northern Mesopotamia to the Tigris River. Darius, having learned about this from his commander Mazeus, who was sent with an advance detachment to the crossing point across the Euphrates, went up the Tigris to stop him. On the plain of Gaugamela, between Nineveh and Arbela, the decisive battle of this war took place. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian army thirty-five miles to Arbela, but Darius, with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries, fled to Media.
Alexander occupied both the province and the city of Babylon. Having surrendered the city, Mazeus was confirmed as satrap along with the Macedonian military commander and, as an exception, even received the right to mint coins. The local priesthood received the same encouragement in Egypt. The capital of Persia, Susa, surrendered without resistance, and here Alexander captured enormous treasures. In the capital, Alexander left the family of Darius, captured at Issus. Then, having defeated the mountain tribes of the Uxii, he passed through the passes of the Zagr range into Central Persia and, having successfully bypassed the mountain pass of the Persian Gate, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, captured Persepolis and Pasargadae.
Bust of Alexander the Great as Helios. Capitoline Museums (Rome)
At Persepolis, he solemnly burned down the palace of Xerxes as a symbol that the pan-Hellenic war of vengeance for previously desecrated Greek shrines had come to an end: this seems to be the probable meaning of this act, which later legend explains as committed in a state of drunken merriment and inspired by the Athenian courtesan Thais. In the spring of 330, the Macedonian moved to Media and occupied its capital Ecbatana. Here he sent many soldiers of the Thessalians and Greek allies home, generously rewarding them. From this time on, he constantly emphasizes that he is waging a purely personal war against Darius.
The appointment of Mazeus as satrap of Babylon indicated that Alexander's views on the empire were changing. He began to involve not only the Macedonians, but also the local nobility, the Persians, in the management of the vast captured territory, and this caused a growing misunderstanding between him and his people. Before continuing the pursuit of Darius, who had gone to Bactria, he collected the entire Persian treasury and entrusted it to Harpalus, who, as chief treasurer, was supposed to keep it in Ecbatana. Parmenion was also left in Media to guard communications: the presence of this elderly man, one of Philip’s generals, began to weigh on him.
In mid-summer 330, Alexander quickly moved to the eastern provinces through Raghi (now Ray near Tehran) and the Caspian Gate, where he learned that the Bactrian satrap Bessus had removed Darius from the throne. After a skirmish near modern Shahrud, the usurper stabbed Darius and left him for dead. Alexander sent the body of Darius for burial with full honors in the royal tomb in Persepolis.
Traveling East to Central Asia
With the death of Darius, Alexander was left with no obstacles to declare himself a great king, and in the Rhodes inscription of this year (330) he is called “Lord, Master of Asia” - that is, of the Persian Empire. Soon after, the title of king appears on coins minted in Asia with his profile. Crossing the Elbrus Mountains and passing into the Caspian Sea, he captured the city of Zadrakarta in Hyrcania and accepted the surrender of a group of satraps and Persian nobles; He left some of them in their former places to govern cities and provinces. Turning westward during this campaign, perhaps to modern Amol, he partially destroyed, partially conquered the Mards and accepted the surrender of Darius's Greek mercenaries. Now nothing stopped him from rapidly moving east. In Ariana, he carried out a massacre because the Aryans first surrendered, but then, at the instigation of their satrap Satibarzan, took up arms. Satibarzan fled. Here, in these lands, Alexander founded another city - Arian Alexandria (now Herat). While in Drangian, in Farah, Alexander received news of the conspiracy of Philots, son of Parmenion. Here he finally made up his mind and took measures to destroy Parmenion and his family. Parmenion's son Philots, commander of the elite cavalry of the "friends" - the Geitars, was allegedly involved in a conspiracy against the life of Alexander, convicted by the army and executed. And Cleander, Parmenion's deputy, received a secret order to kill him, to which he obediently obeyed. This cruelty brought much fear into all the critics of his policy and those whom he considered his father's men, but it strengthened his position in relation to his supporters. All Parmenion's supporters were eliminated, and people close to Alexander were promoted. The Geitar cavalry was reorganized and divided into two detachments of four hipparchies each (a hipparchy is a modern squadron). One part was commanded by Alexander's old friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus, the younger brother of Alexander's nurse.
From Phrase, the Macedonian, during the winter of 330/329, walked up the valley of the Helmand River through Arachosia and further through the mountains past the site of modern Kabul to the country of the Parapamisates, where he founded the city of Alexandria Caucasus.
Bactria and Sogdiana
The former satrap Darius Bessus tried to raise a popular uprising in Bactria and other eastern provinces, assigning himself the title of great king. Having crossed the Hindu Kush along a high mountain pass leading to the north, Alexander, despite the lack of food, led his army to Drapsak (the modern city of Andarab). Outflanked, Bess fled across the Oxus River (now Amu Darya), and Alexander, now moving west, arrived at Bactra-Zariaspa (now Balkh) in Afghanistan. Here he dismissed the previous ones and appointed new rulers of the provinces of Bactria and Ariana. Having crossed the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bess was captured, scourged and sent to Bactra, where he was tortured and mutilated in the Persian manner (his nose and ears were cut off); he was later put to public execution in Ecbatana.
From Marakan (now Samarkand) Alexander went to the city of Cyropol and the Yaxartes River (now Syr Darya), the border of the Persian Empire. There he broke the resistance of the Scythian nomads, taking advantage of the superior technical equipment of his army, defeated them on the northern bank of the river and drove them into the interior of the country, into the desert, and founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Far). Meanwhile, Spitamen, behind his back, raised an uprising throughout Sogdiana, drawing the Massaget tribes into it. It was not until the fall of 328 that Alexander managed to crush the most determined enemy he had to face. Later that year, he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining former retainers of Darius, who were fortified in the mountains of Parataxena (now Tajikistan). Lightly armed volunteer warriors captured the rock on which the fortress of Oxyartes stood, and his daughter Roxana was among the prisoners. Alexander married her as a sign of reconciliation, and his remaining opponents either went over to his side or were crushed.
Movement towards absolutism
An incident that occurred in Marakanda caused even greater estrangement between Alexander and his Macedonians. In a drunken quarrel he killed Cleitus, one of his most trusted commanders; but his army and close friends, seeing how much he suffers and feels guilty, pass a resolution posthumously accusing Cleitus of treason. Thus, the tragic event served as Alexander’s step towards Eastern absolutism. This growing trend found expression in the clothing worn by Alexander among the Persian kings. Soon after, in Bactria, he attempted to impose the ceremonies of the Persian court, including prostration, on the Greeks and Macedonians; but for them this custom, familiar to the Persians, manifested in the presence of the king, was associated with worship of God and was intolerant in relation to man. Even Callisthenes, who with his flattery may have encouraged Alexander to see himself as a god, indignantly rejected this degrading free Greek ceremony. The laughter of the Macedonians caused this experiment to fail, and Alexander was smart enough to retreat. Soon Callisthenes was accused of being privy to a conspiracy among the courtiers against the life of the king, and was executed (according to another version, he died in captivity).
Invasion of India
In the early summer of 327, Alexander set out from Bactra with a new, more powerful army, the command of which had undergone reorganization. If the figure given by Plutarch, one hundred and twenty thousand people, is at all reliable, then all types of auxiliary services should be included here: mule and camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, artists and painters, women and children. The army itself, in fact, should be estimated at thirty-five thousand people. Having crossed the Hindu Kush again, Alexander divided his forces. Half of the army with the convoy under the command of Hephaistion and Perdiccas went through the Khyber gorge, while he himself led the rest with siege weapons through the hilly terrain to the impregnable peak with the built fortress of Aorn and took it by storm. This peak is located a few miles west of the Indus River and just north of the Buner River. At the same time, the Macedonians showed the wonders of siege art. In the spring of 326, having crossed the Indus near Attok, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler gave him elephants and warriors, in return asking for help in the fight against King Porus, who ruled the lands between Hydaspes (now Jhelum) and Akesion (now Shenab). In June, Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. After the victory, he founded two cities there: Alexandria Nicaea (in honor of the victory) and Bucephala (in memory of his horse Bucephalus, who died in that battle). The defeated Porus became his ally. It is not known for sure whether Alexander heard about the Ganges River, but nevertheless he was eager to go further and further. When he approached the Hyphasis River, the army refused to follow him under the incessant tropical rains: the physical and mental strength of the warriors was at their limit. The dissatisfied were represented by the main military leader Alexandra Ken. The intransigence of the army forced Alexander to turn back.
Return from India
On Hyphasis he erected twelve altars dedicated to the main Olympian gods, and on Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800-1000 ships. Having parted with Porus, he went down the Hydaspes, which flowed into the Indus; half of the army boarded ships, and the other half marched in three columns along two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander's own ship was commanded by the helmsman Onesekritus; both subsequently compiled an account of the voyages that have come down to us as evidence. This campaign was accompanied by many small battles and a merciless massacre committed during the assault on the city of the Malla tribe near the Hydraot River (now Ravi). Alexander received a serious wound, which weakened his health.
Arriving at Patala, he built a harbor and docks and explored both branches of the Indus, which then probably flowed into the Great Sea. He intended to lead back part of the army by land, and the rest of the troops were to make an exploratory voyage along the shores of the Persian Gulf on 100-150 ships under the command of Nearchus. Due to skirmishes with local tribes, Nearchus sailed in September 325, but, waiting for the northeast monsoon, delayed until the end of October. In September, Alexander also set off along the coast through Gedrosia, but due to the impassable wilderness and lack of water, he was soon forced to turn inland and therefore was unable to implement his plan to provide the fleet with food supplies. Even earlier, he had sent, under the command of Craterus, a baggage train, siege weapons, elephants, sick and wounded soldiers, giving three detachments of heavily armed infantry for protection. The crater was supposed to lead them through the passage of Mulla, Quetta and Kandahar to the Helmand Valley, and from there through Drangiana to reunite with the main forces of the army on the Aman River (now Minab) in Karmania.
Alexander's campaign through the waterless desert of Gedrosia (now Baluchistan) turned out to be disastrous: he was tormented by a lack of drink, food, and fuel. Moreover, while camping near a dry river bed, a sudden overnight flood caused by the monsoon claimed many lives, especially women and children. Alexander was eventually reunited with the troops sailing on Nearchus' ships. The fleet also suffered losses during this time, and the sailors experienced many shocks.
Political actions
Alexander continued his policy of replacing senior officials and executing negligent governors, which he had already begun to pursue while still in India. During the time between 326 - 324. he removed over a third of his satraps and put six to death. In Media, three military leaders, and among them Cleander, the brother of Ken, who died a little earlier, were accused of extortion, summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried and sentenced to execution.
Coin with the image of Alexander the Great
In the spring of 324, Alexander returned to Susa, where he discovered that his chief treasurer, Harpalus, apparently fearing retribution for embezzlement, had fled with six thousand mercenaries and five thousand talents of money to Greece. At Susa, Alexander held a celebration to celebrate the capture of the Persian Empire and the wedding of his own and his eighty generals: in continuation of his policy of merging the Macedonians and Persians into a single race, they took Persian wives. Alexander and Hephaestion married Darius' daughters Stateira and Dripetis, respectively, and ten thousand of his soldiers, married to local women, received generous gifts from him.
The policy of ethnic fusion increasingly damaged his relations with the Macedonians, who did not at all like his new understanding of empire. They were greatly outraged by his determination to include the Persians in the army and provincial administration on equal terms with them. The arrival of thirty thousand youths who had undergone Macedonian military training, and the inclusion of eastern warriors from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia and other lands of the empire into the cavalry of the Geitars only fanned the fire of their discontent; in addition to everything, the Persian nobility had recently received the right to serve in the king’s cavalry army. Most Macedonians saw this policy as a threat to their privileged position. This issue became extremely acute in 324, when Alexander's decision to send home Macedonian veterans led by Craterus was interpreted as an intention to transfer the seat of power to Asia. An open rebellion broke out, in which only the royal guards did not participate. But when Alexander finally disbanded the entire Macedonian army and recruited Persians in their place, the opposition was broken. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a grand feast (nine thousand guests) to mark the end of differences and the establishment of a partnership in governing the Macedonians and Persians. The conquered peoples were not included in this commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans went to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was overcome.
In the summer of 324, Alexander tried to solve the problem of restless mercenaries, thousands of whom wandered throughout Asia and Greece; many of them are political exiles from their own cities. The decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) ordered all cities of the Greek League to return all exiles and their families (except the Thebans).
Last year
In the fall of 324, Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander gave his closest friend an unprecedented funeral in Babylon. He ordered Greece to honor Hephaestion as a hero, and, apparently, it was precisely with this command that the demand that he himself be given divine honors was connected. He had long cherished thoughts of his divinity. Greek philosophy did not draw a clear dividing line between God and man. Their myths provide more than one example of how a person, having performed great deeds, acquired the status of a deity. Alexander more than once encouraged flattering comparisons of his deeds with those performed by Dionysus or Hercules. He now seems to be becoming convinced of the reality of his divinity and demands its recognition by others. There is no reason to believe that this requirement was due to any political goals (the status of a deity did not give its owner any special rights in the Greek city-state). Rather, it was a symptom of developing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities, willy-nilly, yielded to his demand, but often did so with irony: the Spartan decree said: “If Alexander wants to be a god, let him be a god.”
In the winter of 324, Alexander carried out a brutal punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the mountains of Luristan. The following spring, in Babylon, he received an embassy from Italy, but later stories appeared that embassies also came from more distant peoples: the Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians and even the Romans. Representatives of Greek cities also came to Alexander - wearing wreaths, as was customary to appear before the divine. In the spring, following the route of Nearchus, he founded another Alexandria - at the mouth of the Tigris, and drew up plans for the development of sea connections with India, for which it was first necessary to make an expedition along the Arabian coast. He sent Heraclides to explore the Hyrcanian (Caspian) Sea. Suddenly, while improving the irrigation system of the Euphrates and settling the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander fell ill after a long feast and ten days later, on June 13, 323, he died, at the thirty-third year of his life, believed to be from malaria.
Bas-relief depicting Alexander in battle (the so-called sarcophagus of Alexander the Great)
Alexander the Great wearing the helmet of Hercules (lion's head) on a sarcophagus from Sidon
He reigned for twelve years and eight months. His body, sent by Ptolemy, who later became king in Egypt, was placed in Alexandria in a golden coffin. In Egypt and Greece he was given divine honors.
An heir to the throne was not indicated, and his commanders spoke in favor of the feeble-minded illegitimate son of Philip II, Arrideus, and Alexander’s son from Roxana, Alexander IV, who was born after his father’s death; after much debate they themselves divided the satrapies among themselves. After the death of Alexander the Great, the empire was not destined to survive as a single whole. Both kings were killed: Arrhidaeus in 317, Alexander IV in 310-309. The provinces became independent states, and the military leaders, following the example of Antigonus, proclaimed themselves kings.
The achievements of Alexander, the personality and character of the great Macedonian, his military art
Little reliable information survives about Alexander's plans. If he had remained alive, he would undoubtedly have completed the conquest of Asia Minor, where Paphlagonia, Cappadocia and Armenia still remained essentially independent. But in recent years, Alexander's goals seem to have shifted towards exploration of the surrounding world, in particular Arabia and the Caspian Sea.
In organizing his empire, the Macedonian improvised in many areas and adapted what he found to his needs. The exception was his financial policy: he created a centralized organization with tax collectors, possibly independent of local satraps. Part of the failure of this organization is due to the weakness of leadership on the part of Harpalus. But the issue of a new coin with a certain fixed content of silver, based on the Athenian standard, instead of the old bimetallic system common in Macedonia and Persia, promoted trade everywhere, and this, together with the influx of large quantities of gold and silver from the Persian treasury, served as a very necessary and an important stimulus for the economy of the entire Mediterranean region.
Alexander's founding of new cities - over seventy - according to Plutarch, opened a new page in the history of Greek expansion. Undoubtedly, many colonists, not volunteers at all, left the cities, and marriages with the indigenous inhabitants of Asia led to the dissolution of Greek customs. However, in most cities the influence of the Greeks (more than the Macedonians) remained strong. And since the heirs to Alexander's power in Asia, the Seleucids, continued this process of assimilation, the spread of Hellenistic thought and culture over a large part of Asia, as far as Bactria and India, was one of the most remarkable results of Alexander's conquests.
His plans for racial fusion failed: the Macedonians unanimously rejected the idea, and the Seleucid empire was clearly dominated by the Macedonian and Greek elements.
Alexander's empire was held together by his own dynamic personality. He combined an iron will and a flexible mind with the ability to bring himself and his warriors to the highest tension. Alexander knew when to retreat and reconsider his policies, although he did so very reluctantly. He had a developed imagination, not without romantic impulses: figures like Achilles, Hercules and Dionysus often came to the Macedonian’s mind, and the priest’s greeting at the oracle of Amon definitely influenced his thoughts and ambitions for the entire subsequent period of his life. Alexander quickly succumbed to anger, and the hardships of long campaigns emphasized this trait of his character more and more sharply. Ruthless and capricious, he increasingly resorted to intimidation, without hesitation, destroying people who had lost his trust, and Alexander’s court did not always pretend to be objective. Long after his death, Antipater's son Cassander could not pass by his statue in Delphi without shuddering. However, Alexander, despite these character traits, was loved by the soldiers, whose loyalty could not be doubted, who went with him the long way to Hyphasis without complaint and continued to believe in him, no matter what difficulties befell them. The only time Alexander failed to insist on his own was when, physically and psychologically exhausted, the army refused to follow him further into unfamiliar India.
Alexander - the greatest of all known generals - showed extraordinary flexibility both in combining different types of weapons and in the ability to adapt his tactics to the new forms of warfare that the enemy opposed him, be it nomads, mountaineers or Porus with his elephants. His strategy was skillfully guided by a fertile imagination, and he knew how to take advantage of the slightest chances presented in any battle that could make the difference between victory and defeat. Alexander, having won, never stopped there and mercilessly pursued the fleeing enemy. The Macedonian most often used cavalry to deliver crushing blows, and did this so effectively that he rarely had to resort to the help of his infantry.
Alexander's short reign was a decisive moment in the history of Europe and Asia. His campaign and personal interest in scientific research greatly advanced the knowledge of geography and natural history. The activities of the Macedonian led to the transfer of the great centers of European civilization to the east and to the beginning of a new era of Greek territorial monarchies. It contributed to the spread of Hellenism throughout the Middle East in a broad colonial wave and the creation - if not in a political sense, then at least in an economic and cultural sense - of a single world, stretching from Gibraltar to the Punjab, open to trade and social relationships. It is fair to say that the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity as a world religion, and the long centuries of Byzantium were, to some extent, the fruits of the labors of Alexander the Great.
History of Ru
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Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) received an excellent education for his era - from the age of 13, Aristotle himself was involved in his upbringing. Alexander was fond of reading the heroic poems of Homer, he was inspired by the exploits of the great heroes of ancient Hellas. His father Philip II independently supervised his son's military training. Even in his youth, Alexander demonstrated his amazing abilities in the art of military leadership. And in 338, Alexander’s personal participation in the battle of Chaeronea significantly influenced the outcome of the battle, in which the Macedonians won.
The early years of the heir to the Macedonian throne were overshadowed by the divorce of his parents. And after his father’s second marriage to another woman, Alexander quarreled with Philip. In 336 BC e. Soon after the mysterious death of King Philip, Alexander, who was 20 years old at that time, ascended the throne, and the Greeks called him the hegemon of the Hellenic League.
Alexander the Great on a fragment of an ancient Roman mosaic from Pompeii, a copy of an ancient Greek painting
The young king considered the confrontation with Persia as the main competitor for influence in Asia Minor to be one of the main directions of his state’s foreign policy, so great attention was paid to preparing for a military campaign against this country. Despite the fact that he inherited the strongest army of Ancient Greece from his father, Alexander understood well that it was impossible to defeat the huge Achaemenid power without uniting the efforts of all of Hellas. Therefore, Alexander took care of creating a pan-Greek union and forming a united Greek-Macedonian army. The elite part of the army consisted of the king's bodyguards and the Macedonian royal guard, and the core of the cavalry was made up of horsemen from Thessaly. The infantrymen were protected by heavy bronze armor, and their main weapon was the sarissa, the famous Macedonian spear. Alexander significantly changed the combat tactics of the so-called Macedonian phalanx, developed by his father, using an angular formation, which made it possible to concentrate forces when attacking the enemy’s right flank, traditionally weaker in the armies of that period. In addition to the heavy infantry, the army of Alexander the Great had numerous lightly armed auxiliary units from various Greek cities. In general, the number of infantry reached 30 thousand people, the cavalry consisted of 5 thousand people. Despite the relatively small number of troops, the Greco-Macedonian army consisted of well-trained and armed fighters.
Before the start of the long-prepared campaign to the East, in the spring of 335, the young king made a rush into Thrace, suppressing the uprising that had broken out. In Greece, the long absence of the ruler caused rumors to spread about his death, and rebels from Boeotia surrounded the Macedonian garrison located in Thebes. Having learned about this, in the fall of 335 the young king dealt a sudden blow to the Thebans, capturing and destroying their city. These measures had a terrifying effect on the Greeks; as a result, they unquestioningly recognized his power, replenishing Alexander’s army with recruits for the campaign against Persia.
In 334, after Alexander's troops crossed the Hellespont, a war began, the purpose of which was declared to be revenge on the Persians for desecrating the Greek shrines of Asia Minor.
First, Alexander had to fight the Persian satraps who ruled Asia Minor. In 333, at the Battle of the Granik River, the Macedonian army defeated a 60,000-strong Persian army, then Alexander went south, moving along the coast of Ionia. After a long siege, the Persian garrisons in the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus submitted to the Macedonians, and other cities voluntarily surrendered to the mercy of the winner. In the spring of 333, Alexander's army occupied Lycia and Pamphylia, in July the Macedonians conquered Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, and in September Cilicia. But the Achaemenid power had colossal human and material potential. And Darius III, having united the best military units from different parts of his state, set off to meet the Macedonian king. But, despite careful preparation, in the decisive battle of Issus his 100,000-strong army suffered a crushing defeat, Darius himself barely managed to escape by escaping from the battlefield, and his mother, wife and children were captured. At the beginning of winter 332, the Macedonian army entered Phenicia, besieging Tire. A long siege and a fierce assault did their job, and in the end the city was taken. A similar fate awaited the residents of Gaza.
Alexander decided not to dwell on the victory achieved, continuing the campaign. After the successful siege of Tyre, the path to Egypt was open to him, and already in the winter of 332-331. The Greco-Macedonian army arrived in the Nile Valley. Residents of states enslaved by the Persians treated the Macedonians as liberators. In order to maintain stable power in the captured territory, Alexander announced that his father was the Egyptian god Ammon, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, thanks to which Alexander, in the eyes of the Egyptians, acquired the right to power and the title of pharaoh due to him by law. Another method of strengthening power in the conquered countries was the settlement of these territories by Greeks and Macedonians, thus the Greek language and culture spread over vast territories. The settlers usually settled in specially built new cities, most often named after Alexander. The most famous is the city of Alexandria, founded in Egypt. The success of Alexander's army in Egypt deprived the Persian fleet of its only remaining base of support.
To fight the Persians and Spartans who landed on Crete, Alexander sent a squadron led by Amphoteres. Antipater, Alexander's governor in Macedonia, was at this time busy suppressing the Spartan uprising in the Peloponnese. After the victory over the Spartans, Antipater sent significant reinforcements to Egypt, which joined the main corps of the Macedonian expedition. In the spring of 331, Alexander left Egypt, going to Syria. In September, having crossed the Euphrates, his army crossed Mesopotamia and, adhering to the left bank of the Tigris, reached the village of Gaugamela. At this place they were to meet with the huge army of Darius III waiting for them, the number of which, according to ancient historians, reached a million people.
The decisive battle took place on October 1, 331 near Gaugamela. After a crushing defeat, Darius III, again fleeing, went to Ecbatana. Meanwhile, Alexander, who met no resistance on his way, managed to occupy Babylon, Persepolis, Susa and Ecbatana without a fight. After stopping briefly in Ecbatana, Alexander allowed all Greek allies who wished to go home. His plans included the creation of a new ruling class from the Persians and Macedonians, and he also paid attention to the local nobility, causing discontent among his comrades.
Having rested a little, Alexander’s army set out on the campaign again. Passing Susiana, Macedonian warriors captured Persia, burned the palace of Darius in Persepolis, and in July the Macedonians entered Media. Frightened by the approach of the Macedonian army, Darius III, accompanied by a small detachment of horsemen, set off for Bactria. By order of the satrap of Bactria, Bessus, Darius III was killed, after which Bessus, who proclaimed himself the Persian king, was forced to go on the run, avoiding persecution. By order of Alexander, the last Persian king was buried in Persepolis with the pomp befitting a king. Thus, the Achaemenid power ceased to exist, and Alexander was proclaimed “king of Asia.” After this, the Macedonians occupied Parthia and Hyrcania. After the victory over the satrap of Areia Satibarzan, the territories of Drangiana, Gedrosia and Arachosia were added to Alexander's empire.
In 329, after crossing the eastern Iranian regions, Alexander's army arrived in Central Asia, whose inhabitants, under the command of Spitamenes, fiercely resisted; this rebellion was suppressed only after the death of Spitamenes in 328. Bess was betrayed by his own associates and he was executed. Sogdian resistance was desperate. After the first successes, which allowed Alexander to cross the Jaxartes River to meet the nomadic tribes of the Sakas, the Macedonian rear failed - new actions began there, lasting until 327.
Alexander tried to pursue a subtle cultural policy, trying to respect the traditions of the local residents, put on Persian royal robes, and also took the Bactrian Roxana as his wife. But his desire to adopt the Persian court ceremonial (especially prostrate before the king) was rejected by the proud freedom-loving Greeks, despite the fact that Alexander brutally dealt with those who objected. So, he ordered the death of his own foster brother Cleitus, who once dared to disobey.
Alexander the Great's campaign in Asia
Having left the territory of Bactria in April 327, Alexander set off on a campaign against India. In a continuous struggle with the resisting local residents, overcoming the passes of the Hindu Kush, Alexander’s army reached the Indus, where the king of the principality of Taxila, who voluntarily submitted to Alexander, was waiting for them. In May 326, Alexander's army marched against King Porus. After winning the battle on the Hydaspes River, the Macedonians moved further south. The Indus Valley was also annexed to Alexander's empire. In continuous battles, his army reached the Hyphasis River, but here the exhaustion of the soldiers and the need to periodically suppress riots in the army forced Alexander to abandon the continuation of the campaign, turning to the west.
In the first half of 325, moving along the Hydaspes and Indus, Alexander was seriously wounded in one battle, but this did not prevent the Macedonians from reaching the ocean shore, where they built ships on which parts of the army led by Nearchus were to reach the Persian Gulf. The commander Craterus went through Drangiana and Arachosia to suppress the newly flared uprisings, and Alexander with the remaining army went through the desert of Gedrosia. The unification of the army of Alexander the Great took place only in January 324, and in February the Macedonians reached the city of Susa. On the road to Babylon, Alexander conquered the tribes that did not obey him.
In 323, Alexander entered Babylon in triumph. In this city he received ambassadors from different nations, here he thought over plans for new conquests. After returning to Babylon, Alexander did not forget about the policy of uniting the multilingual peoples of his state, rapprochement with the Persian aristocrats involved in governing the state. At Alexander's request, mass weddings of Macedonians and Persians were arranged; he himself took two Persian women as wives at the same time - Statira and Parysatis, who were the daughters of Darius.
Alexander the Great wearing the helmet of Hercules (lion's head) on a sarcophagus from Sidon
Alexander planned to conquer Arabia and North Africa, but the implementation of these plans was prevented by his unexpected death from the bite of a malarial mosquito. However, there is no consensus among historians about the causes of the death of Alexander the Great. The version about his poisoning is quite widespread, although there was neither confirmation nor refutation.
After Alexander's death, power over the huge state passed to his newborn son and half-brother Arrhidaeus. But actual power over the empire ended up in the hands of Alexander’s military leaders - the Diadochi, who soon began to fight with each other, trying to divide the state among themselves.
The great commander of all times and peoples, Alexander the Great, conquered almost the entire world known to him, which, however, turned out to be too large even for him. The empire created by Alexander, the world's first superpower, turned out to be fragile, since the political and economic side of Alexander's conquests was weak - during his short life, Alexander still failed to embrace the immensity. The same cannot be said about the colossal influence that Greek culture had on the countries of the East. Hellenism provided the first example of global cultural expansion, the results of which determined the entire further course of the world. The personality of Alexander the Great continues to be the subject of much debate and speculation, as well as serious scientific research. Only one truth is obvious: Alexander the Great has been glorified throughout the centuries as a symbol of courage, bravery and military genius.
Alexander the Great briefly about the great king and war
The great conqueror, the king, who received the title of god during his lifetime, is Alexander the Great, whose brief biography will be presented in this article.
The entire biography of the most famous king of Macedonia consists of many legends, and it is already difficult to separate the truth from fiction.
Speaking about Alexander the Great and his brief biography, one cannot help but talk about his parents, especially his father, who played an important role in raising his son to be a real warrior, and not a pampered ruler.
Philip II, king of Macedonia, achieved the impossible during the years of his reign - from a tiny country he created a powerful state with a strong army, which had no equal in Greece. Thanks to the gold mines that fell into his hands, Philip was able to bribe many Greek cities and created the Corinthian League, which united almost all of Greece. He was a talented politician who skillfully used the slightest weakness of his opponent for his own purposes.
Alexander was born in the capital of Macedonia, the city of Pella, in 356 BC. e. The exact day and month of birth could not be determined.
Philip paid a lot of attention to raising his son Alexander. He tried to find the best teachers for him. One of them was the great Greek philosopher Aristotle. Thanks to him, Alexander received an exemplary Greek education. The scientist instilled in his student a love of literature. Alexander's favorite work was Homer's Iliad.
At the age of 18, the future great king had to participate in battle for the first time. This was the Battle of Chaeronea, where he commanded part of his father's army, although under the supervision of experienced military leaders.
In 336 BC. e., after the assassination of Philip, Alexander was unanimously elected ruler of Macedonia. An ambitious and passionate young king (he was 20 years old at that time), with an iron hand he brought order among the enemies of Macedonia, who wanted to take advantage of the death of Philip. In 335 BC. he conquered Thebes, the Thracians and the Triballians who rebelled against him. Immediately after this, the young king begins a campaign in Asia Minor (334 BC). Contrary to the belief that Alexander’s army was huge, in fact about 50 thousand soldiers went on this campaign.
Many cities themselves surrendered to Macedon, and by 333 BC. Asia Minor was completely conquered. In the autumn of the same year, at the Battle of Issus, Alexander's army defeated the army of Darius III, king of Persia. Phenicia, Palestine and Egypt surrendered almost without resistance. In Egypt, he ordered the construction of a capital named after him.
Next, the Macedonian army moved to the very center of the Persian power - the city of Media. Here, October 1, 331 BC. e. The greatest battle took place, which led to the disappearance of Persia as a state - the Battle of Gaugamela. By 329 BC. all Persian lands were conquered.
In 329 BC. Alexander's three-year successful campaign took place, this time to Central Asia. In 326 BC. he went on his last campaign to India. A year later, the army, tired of endless campaigns and battles, rebelled, and the king had to return back.
In June 323 BC. Alexander the Great died in Babylon after 10 days of illness. The cause of death of the outstanding conqueror of all times is still unknown. There are two versions: death from illness or poisoning. Alexander's embalmed body was taken, according to his wishes, to Alexandria, Egypt.
